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8.
Summary of Science in Antarctica Prior to
and Including the
International Geophysical Year
Robert H. Rufford
A summary of antarctic science up to and including the
International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) is not an easy
undertaking. It is difficult to separate geographic
exploration from science, and it is clear that for most
of the history of antarctic science the two have been
closely tied. This review is based on summaries that
have been prepared for other purposes, and includes
liberal use of those documents listed at the end of this
article.
The legendary southern continent, now known as Antarc-
tica, has long intrigued geographers and cartographers.
Pythagoras in 600 B.C. postulated a spherical world and
convinced his students that large land masses would be
found in the Southern Hemisphere to balance those already
known in the Northern Hemisphere. In the second century
A.D., Ptolemy drew a map with a huge southern land mass
called "terra incognita": a name that is appropriate even
today. Ptolemy linked southern Africa with the Malay
Peninsula, making the Indian Ocean a closed basin, and it
was not until the end of the fifteenth century when
European sailors reported rounding the Cape of Good Hope
and sailing into the Indian Ocean that this concept was
proven wrong. Magellan's transit from the Atlantic into
the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan in the early
part of the sixteenth century lead to the conclusion that
the land to the south, Tierra del Fuego, was part of the
great southern continent, Terra Australis. By 1531 a
southern continent was shown on a map drafted by
Orantius, a map copied by Mercator in 1538. There is
shocking similarity between the shape of the postulative
land mass and the actual land mass as determined several
centuries later.
87
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In the late fifteenth century, Sir Francis Drake was
blown well south of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn on his
voyage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, thus proving
that if a land mass did exist to the south it was not
connected to Tierra del Fuego and must lie much farther
south than had been postulated.
Continued exploration and attempts to establish trade
routes led to additional voyages in the Drake Passage
area. It has been suggested that South Georgia was
sighted by a British merchant vessel captained by de la
Roche in 1675. As a result of exploration in the Pacific
and the discovery of New Zealand, it was suggested by
some that if a southern continent did exist, it was not
the cold inhospitable continent we know it to be today.
In 1739 the French Captain Bouvet discovered the island
that now bears his name. He continued to sail south,
traversed along the edge of the pack ice, reported large
icebergs, but saw no land mass. His travels gave the
first real impression of the nature of the land mass if
in fact one did exist.
The circumpolar navigation by Captain James Cook
during the period 1772-1775 established the fact that
there was no land connection to the legendary southern
continent. Cook, although he apparently never sighted
land, crossed the Antarctic Circle three times, charted
the north coast of South Georgia, and landed at
Possession Bay. His ship penetrated to 71°10' in the
Bellingshausen Sea. He reported the rich seal fauna
present, and a century of intense sealing followed. Cook
had with him astronomical consultants from the Greenwich
Observatory, who in addition to assisting with navigation,
made seawater temperature observations, noting a warm
layer of water below the cold surface layer.
In the early 1800s, exploration in the Southern Ocean
was largely related to exploitation of the seal resource.
The South Shetland Islands were discovered by Captain
William Smith in 1819, and apparently the first seals
were taken from those islands. The first overwinter
sealing party wintered over on King George Island during
1820-1821. U.S. sealers discovered the Biscoe Islands in
the same time period, and in 1821, Captain Palmer (U.S.)
and Powell (U.K.) discovered and charted the South Orkney
Islands. Powell measured water temperature, again noting
the warmer water below the cold surface water.
Captain Thaddeus Bellingshausen, leading a Russian
exploration team during the period 1819-1821,-discovered
Peter I Island and Alexander I Island and charted the
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South Shetland Islands, South Sandwich Islands, and th
south coast of South Georgia. Bellingshausen towed nets
behind his ships, noting that there was a difference
between daylight and darkness trawl catches; he postulated
a vertical migration of the animals to avoid daylight.
Deacon notes that "he may have been the first to mention
Euphasia superba, n krill, the staple food of the whales
and penguins.
It was during this period in the early 1820s that the
antarctic continent itself was apparently first sighted.
There is some debate as to whether Palmer from the United
States, Bransfield from the United Kingdom, or Bellings~
hausen from Russia should be recognized as the "dis-
coverer. n Incomplete records and less than accurate
navigational equipment make it difficult to resolve this
matter. It is clear that another captain, John Davis of
the United States, first entered the words in his log, "I
think this Southern Land to be a Continent." Davis on
this voyage landed members of his crew at Hughes Bay.
Captain James Weddell, sponsored by the EnderbY
Brothers, made the deepest penetration south into the sea
that now bears his name, reaching 74°lS'S in February
1823. Strong winds prevented him from reaching the edge
of the Filchner Ice Shelf. Weddell reported on magnetic
variations, ice movements, winds, and ocean currents.
Captain Brisbane, whose ship sailed with Weddell, worked
in the South Orkney Islands and made rough charts of
their southern coasts.
e
In 1829-1831, Captain Foster, sponsored by the British
government, made magnetic observations and measured
gravity by pendulum measurements at Deception Island.
John Biscoe, also from the United Kingdom, made a
circumnavigation of the continent. Sailing eastward from
the Falklands, he discovered land at Cape Ann in EnderbY
Land. After wintering at Hobart, Tasmania, Biscoe con-
tinued eastward, discovering Adelaide Island and landing
on Anvers Island before returning to the Falklands.
James Eights, a naturalist from Albany, New York,
accompanied a U.S. expedition led by Captain Benjamin
Pendleton to the peninsula and then on a cruise to the
west. Following the voyage, Eights wrote a report on the
natural history of the South Shetland Islands, making
excellent observations on geology, fauna, and flora. He
is credited with finding the first fossils in Antarctica,
with discovering the ten-legged marine spiders called
Decolopoda, and with deducing from his observations of
icebergs on the western cruise that there must be a large
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go
land mass close by. Eights may well have been the first
trained scientist to visit the Antarctic.
In the late 1830s and early 1840s a flurry of
scientific activity occurred in the southern polar
regions. Captain Dumont d'Urville, sponsored by the
French Ministry of Marine, set out to sail farther south
than Weddell. He was forced by unfavorable ice conditions
to turn back and worked in the South Shetlands and
Antarctic Peninsula before sailing into the Pacific.
Following a year in the Pacific, he sailed south from
Tasmania in a futile attempt to reach the south magnetic
pole. In the process, however, he discovered the Adelie
and Clarie coasts and noted that the magnetic pole lay
inland from the coast.
The U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1838-1842 was led by
Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, who was sponsored by the U.S.
Navy with a Congressional Appropriation. wilkes' vessels
explored both sides of the Antarctic Peninsula, then
headed westward in the Pacific. Later, they returned to
antarctic waters and sailed westward along the wilkes
Coast for over 1500 miles. It was on this voyage that
Wilkes established the continental dimensions of
Antarctica, and thus provided evidence that Antarctica
was, indeed, a continent.
In 1839-1843, an expedition led by James Clark Ross
and sponsored by the British Admiralty and the Royal
Society ventured south in an attempt to reach the south
magnetic pole. Ross penetrated deep into the Ross Sea,
discovered the Ross Ice Shelf, Victoria Land, and
eventually sailed eastward to the Falklands, and then
south in an attempt to penetrate the Weddell Sea.
The three expeditions led by Wilkes, Ross, and
d'Urville all had planned scientific programs, and while
attempts to reach the south magnetic pole failed, they
did bring back a great deal of information about magnetic
variations, winds, currents, water temperatures, and
fauna and flora of the areas they visited. Ross made
numerous biological collections but had problems with
preservation. Deacon notes that following the voyage,
234 species were described, of which 145 were new.
Wilkes also brought back a great deal of biological
materials and despite better preservation, it appears
that little was published on these materials. One mono-
graph that was published was written by James Dwight
Dana, who was apparently the first to describe Euphasis
superba in his excellent work on crustaceans.
In 1841-1842, Captain William Smyley, a sealer from
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the United States, recovered a minimum thermometer on
Deception Island that had been left there by Foster in
1829. The temperature of -5°F was the lowest reported
temperature in Antarctica until 1898.
During the 1850s Captain John Heard discovered the
Heard Islands, Captain John McDonald discovered the
island that now bears his name, and in 1857 a group of
U.S. sealers first wintered on Heard Island.
In 1872 the Challenger voyages began under the spon-
sorship of the British Admiralty and the Royal Society.
The scientific leader of the 1872-1876 voyage of the
Challenaer. under the command of Cantain Georae Naves.
was Professor C. Wyville Thompson. The studies carried
out, primarily in the subantarctic islands, were part of
a larger oceanographic cruise. Challenger dredged con-
tinental type rocks from the seafloor, proving the
existence of Antarctica as a true continent, and noted
both a rich fauna and flora in the antarctic marine
environment. The studies also included observation on
depth, chemical composition, temperature, and currents of
these southern waters.
During this same time Period the shin Gronland,
commanded by Captain Edward Dallman and sponsored by
Albert Rosenthal and the German Society for Polar
Navigation, sailed south along the west side of the
Antarctic Peninsula, pressing south of Biscoe Island and
discovering the Bismark Straits in an area Biscoe in 1832
had presumed was land. A second German party, led by van
Rubritz, sailed to Kerguelan and Heard Island to inves-
tigate possible sites for a base to observe the transit
of Venus.
Almost 20 years lapsed before activity resumed in the
exploration of Antarctica. In the early 1890s, a
Scottish whaling expedition of four vessels visited the
peninsula area. Two surgeons, W. S. Bruce, who later
returned to Antarctica, and C. W. Donald, accompanied
this cruise and, despite the concentration on commercial
activities, were able to make some observations on the
fauna of coastal zones. One of the ships discovered
Dundee Island, the strait between it, and the Jooinville
Islands, and explored both Erebus and Terror gulf to the
south.
The Norwegian effort began in earnest at this time
also. Captain C. A. Larsen combined whaling, sealing,
and exploration, collecting plant and animal fossils from
Seymour Island and exploring the east side of the
peninsula along the Larsen Ice Shelf. In 1894-1895,
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Captain Leonard Kristensen, while in search of right
whales, made significant collections of rock specimens,
lichen, and seaweed during a landing at Cape Adare. A
landing was also made on Possession Island, where rock
specimens, lichen, and penguins were collected for later
study. It was one of these landings that the first
mummified seals in Antarctica were discovered and
reported.
-
The now-famous cruise of the Belgica under command of
Lieutenant Adrien de Gerlache of Belgium was initiated as
a truly scientific expedition. The Belgica sailed south
from Tierra del Fuego to the South Shetlands, then along
the west side of the peninsula, penetrating south through
Gerlache Strait and eventually into the Bellingshausen
Sea. The ship became locked into the ice, and became
quite unintentionally the first scientific expedition to
winter over in the Antarctic. The ship broke free after
a year and was able to return home with observations on
fauna and flora, geology, glaciology, and the first set
of continuous winter temperature observations from the
Antarctic.
In 1898 a German expedition led by Professor Karl Chan
provided additional information about the form of the
ocean bed in the southern Atlantic and Indian oceans and
reported an accurate location of Bouvet Island.
C. E. Borchgrevink, who had accompanied Kristensen to
Antarctica in 1894-1895, returned in 1898 as leader of
the privately funded British Antarctic Expedition. He
established a land base on the continent at Cape Adare.
His group was the first to land at a base actually on the
continent, and they obtained continuous meteorological
and magnetic observations as well as geologic and biologic
collections. An important contribution was the descrip-
tion of the shallow water marine life in the area,
observations that set aside once and for all the notion
that these waters were barren of life. Borchgrevink's
party was picked up in 1900, sailed south and then along
the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf, landed at the Bay of
Whales, from where Borchgrevink and two others sledged
south to 78°50'S, man's farthest penetration south to
that time.
The first decade of the twentieth century has been
called the "Heroic Age" of antarctic exploration. More
important to this discourse is the fact that the increased
activity included major emphasis on the acquisition of
scientific data as part of the expeditions. During the
1890s, using reports from the Challenger cruise and
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evidence from the ocean floor sediments and drop-stones
from melting icebergs, Murray attempted a reconstruction
of the geology, meteorology, and glaciology of this still
unknown continent. Murray pleaded with the Royal Society
to fund scientific research on the continent. Clement
Markham, president of the society, picked up the theme
and lobbied for support. His efforts finally resulted in
support for the National Antarctic Expedition of the
United Kingdom. Utilizing support from the government,
the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Society, and
private donors, the ship Discovery, under the command of
Robert Falcon Scott, sailed to Antarctica in 1902.
At the Bay of Whales, Scott utilized a captive balloon
ascent to make observations of the Ross Ice Shelf topog-
raphy and extent. He then sailed west and established
his base at Hut Point on Ross Island. The three summers
spent on Ross Island resulted in many new scientific
observations. The discovery of the ice-free Taylor
Valley, two sledge trips up the Ferrar Glacier to the
Polar Plateau that reached as far south as 77°59'S, and
observations on life in the area were the highlights of
scientific efforts, efforts that served as the basis for
additional work in the area for the next decade and that
are still referred to today.
On the other side of the continent a German party led
by Professor Erich van Drygalski was working along
Wilhelm II Coast at about 90°E. Their ship Gauss was
frozen in the pack ice and drifted for over a~year.
During this period, stations were established on the ice
for magnetic, geodetic, climatological, and tidal data.
Drygalski also used a captive balloon to view the local
terrain. The extinct volcano Gaussberg was discovered
and named by a sledge party that visited the site.
Glaciologic and geologic studies and collections were
carried out, and a biologic program including descrip-
tions and collections of birds, lichen, mosses, and
marine fauna was completed.
In the Antarctic Peninsula area the Swedish Antarctic
Expedition under the leadership of Dr. Otto Nordenskjold
set out to explore the east side of the peninsula.
Extreme ice conditions made it impossible to get to the
area, and as a result, the party split up, with a group
including Nordenskjold establishing a station on Snow
Hill Island, while the ship and the remainder of the
party returned to winter on South Georgia. Difficult
times beset the ship as it attempted to return to Snow
Hill Island the next spring. The ship could not reach
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the island and set a party ashore in an attempt to reach
the Snow Hill Island group. The ship, Antarctic, was
then crushed by ice in the Erebus and Terror Gulfs and
the crew landed on Poulet Island. Eventually, all groups
rejoined and were rescued by the Argentine ship Uruquay.
The Nordenskjold expedition produced significant
scientific studies. Continuous records of meteorology
and magnetics came from the Snow Hill Island party,
geologic and cartographic work came from the sledge
parties, and observations on glaciology were recorded
also.
Dr. William Bruce returned to the Antarctic as an
expedition leader in 1902, concentrating his scientific
efforts in the area of the Weddell Sea. In addition to
meteorologic, oceanographic, and magnetic observations,
Bruce established a meteorology station on Laurie Island,
a station that was taken over by the Argentines in 1904
and has provided continuous observations since that time.
The French expedition led by Dr. J. Charcot set out to
assist Nordenskjold but arrived after his rescue by the
Argentines. His work was concentrated along the west
side of the peninsula, and the contributions included
studies of tides, sea ice, magnetics, geology, and
biology, including major collections of marine organisms.
Shackleton arrived in the Ross Sea with the stated
intent of conducting scientific studies and reaching both
the south magnetic and geographic poles. Unable to reach
Hut Point and r c-occupy Scott's base, he established a
new camp at Cape Royds. Important studies included
studies of freshwater lakes and the living organisms
within them, geologic studies, and oceanographic obser-
vations. A motor-driven vehicle was used to establish
caches prior to the attempts to reach the poles.
Shackleton's group reached 88°23'S in a vain attempt to
reach the geographic pole, while Professor David's group
was successful in reaching the south magnetic pole, then
located at 72°25'S, 155°16'E.
Charcot returned during the 1908-1910 period to
continue his work on the peninsula. The scientific
results were significant with glaciology, geology, and
biology the major efforts. Important collections were
made, especially a wide variety of species of birds,
marine invertebrates, and marine mammals.
The start of the second decade of the l900s saw
greatly increased activity with the conquest of the south
geographic pole a major stimulus. Amundsen, beaten in
his attempt to be the first to reach the North Pole,
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sailed south and established a base camp at the Bay of
Whales at the east end of the Ross Ice Shelf. At the
same time, Scott returned to Ross Island and set up a
station at Cape Evans. In the fall of 1911 both parties
set out for the South Pole, Amundsen arriving and
establishing the location on December 16, 1911. Scott
arrived January 17, 1912, and to his disappointment found
he had been beaten. Amundsen, having successfully used
dogs to make the journey, arrived back at the Bay of
Whales in late January. Scott's party of five had
man-hauled, and were unable to complete the return trip.
All perished by late March of 1912.
The contrast between those two expeditions has often
been cited. Amundsen's sole goal was to reach the pole
and return safely. Scott combined scientific work with
his effort, and some 35 pounds of geologic specimens were
still on the sledges when the ill-fated party was found
the following season. In addition, other members of the
Scott expedition made studies of the Cape Crazier Emperor
Penguin rookery, completed important geologic studies in
the areas to the west and south of McMurdo Sound and on
Ross Island, made extended continuous meteorological
observations including the use of balloons for upper air
studies, and also included magnetic and auroral research
as part of the overall effort. The party left at Cape
Adare did geologic work primarily. The results of this
scientific work, published as the Terra Nova Reports,
include also the oceanographic work done on-board the
ship on the various legs of its voyages in antarctic
waters.
Lieutenant Shirase, leading a Japanese party,
initially set out to reach the South Pole. Hearing of
the plans of Amundsen and Scott, the party worked instead
along the east end of the Ross Ice Shelf, where they
named Kainan Bay and sledged south from the Bay of Whales
to 80°S. A second group visited Edward VII Peninsula and
the Alexandra Mountains.
Dr. Bruce had suggested from his earlier visits to
Antarctica that there was a possibility that the Weddell
and Ross seas were connected. Dr. Wilhelm Filchner
proposed that parties travel south from the edges of the
sea and meet someplace in the middle of the continent.
Unable to raise sufficient funds, his German expedition
was able only to start the approach from the Weddell Sea
side. He established a base on what is now the Filchner
Ice Shelf, but was again set back by a calving of the
edge of the shelf and loss of equipment. The goal of the
expedition was not accomplished.
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Sir Douglas Mawson, leader of the Australasian Antarc-
tic Expedition, established a base at Cape Denison on the
Adelie Coast in 1912. Five parties worked in the area
under the most extreme weather conditions. The first
radio communication link was established with the outside
world via a station on Macquarie Island, and the scien-
tific accomplishments were most productive in geology,
glaciology, and terrestrial biology. The expedition ship
Aurora established a western base after charting portions
of the Davis Sea and Queen Mary Coast. The ship carried
out oceanographic work between Australia and Anarctica
and discovered specimens of the Ross Seal. This was the
last of the expeditions of this era that provided
significant scientific results. Schackleton's 1914-1916
and 1921-1922 expedition produced little science but much
adventure, and the southern oceans were dominated
by whalers during the next decade.
In the mid-1920s, scientific work began again. The
cruises of the German ship Meteor introduced the use of
the echo sounder to provide details of the topography of
the seafloor, the South Sandwich Trench was discovered,
and the presence of four distinct water masses in the
South Atlantic was identified.
At the same time the first of the Discovery voyages
was undertaken. These voyages, carried out over 15 years
using three different ships, were sponsored by the DiS-
covery Committee of the British Government to provide
scientific information related to the various conditions
that influence the distribution and number of whales. A
scientific station was established at Grytviken on South
Georgia, and summer research programs were conducted each
whaling season from 1925 to 1931. The importance of
krill to the diet of baleen whales was substantiated, the
relationship between the areas of upwelling, phytoplank~
ton, krill, and whales was studied, whale markings were
made, and significant additions to the understanding of
the physical, chemical, and biological components of the
waters around Antarctica resulted. These voyages estab-
lished an admirable record of scientific accomplishment,
charted a great number of important areas adjacent to
Antarctica, and developed techniques used by later
expeditions in the design of their scientific research.
A series of Norwegian expeditions during the 1926-1937
period made significant observations to the east of the
Weddell Sea along the coastal fringe of Queen Maud Land
as far east as 80°. The major contributions were mapping,
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use of airplanes for aerial reconnaissance, and th
meteorological and oceanographic data recorded.
In 1929-1930, Mawson led an international party on two
voyages; the first worked along the Enderby Coast, the
second along the coast of Wilkes Land. In addition to
the further definition of the coast lines in these areas,
valuable research was carried out in geology, ocean-
ography, and biology, including marine mammals as well as
small marine organisms.
The U.S. interest in antarctic exploration and science
had been dormant for almost a century until the first
Byrd Expedition established a base on the Ross Ice Shelf
in 1929. This expedition is best known for the first
flight over the South Pole, but important geologic
observations and discoveries were made as well. Rocks
were collected from the Queen Maud Range, and the
Rockefeller Mountains were discovered.
The second Byrd Antarctic Expedition in 1933-1935
included a major scientific component, and the
utilization of the best technology available to
accomplish the goals was a significant factor.
Meteorologic records from Little America included both
surface and upper air observations, seismic techniques
were used to measure ice thickness and subice topography,
cosmic ray studies were initiated, significant biologic
work was carried out, and again geologic parties worked
in Marie Byrd Land and the Queen Maud Range. Aerial
reconnaissance flights fairly well established that there
was no surface expression of a connection between the
Ross and Weddell seas, and the general outline of
Roosevelt Island was defined.
In the mid-1930s, Rymill (U.K.) worked in the Antarc-
tic Peninsula area, made important geographic discoveries
including surveys that established that there was not a
strait separating the peninsula from the continent. Long-
term meteorologic observations were obtained, and an
important study of antarctic seas was completed.
The expedition of Ellsworth provided little scientific
data, but of some significance was the discovery of the
Ellsworth Mountains, now known to contain the highest
peak in Antarctica. The German party led by Captain
Aired Ritscher made a quick visit to the coastal areas
just east of the Weddell Sea with the expressed intent of
establishing a claim and mapping the areas. A lack of
geodetic control made the photos taken of little value,
and the claim of New Schwabenland was never established.
e
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The Antarctic Service Expedition led by Byrd in
1939-1941 again brought a large group with a great deal
of equipment to the continent. Two bases were estab-
lished, one at Little America on the Ross Ice Shelf, a
second on Stonington Island on the west side of the
peninsula. A wide variety of scientific studies were
carried out from each base camp. The usual geologic,
meteorologic, biologic, and oceanographic studies were
carried out along with one of the first studies of the
physiologic and psychologic reactions by man to the cold.
Between 1942 and 1955 both Argentina and the united
Kingdom carried out numerous voyages that had components
of scientific research related to hydrographic, biologic,
and meteorologic studies. Bases were established by both
nations, not only for scientific purposes, but to estab-
lish their claims as well.
Admiral Byrd returned to Antarctica during the
1946-1947 austral summer as the leader of Operation
Highjump, the largest antarctic expedition to date. The
intent was a massive effort to photograph the coastal
regions of a large portion of the continent. The use of
airplanes required ground meteorological data, and the
use of synoptic maps helped identify characteristics and
movement of air masses and fronts. Operation Windmill
followed the next year with the intent of obtaining ground
control for the photos taken during Operation Highjump.
In addition, both geologic and biologic work were carried
out. Helicopters were first used in support of research
in the Antarctic.
The pace and scope of research activities picked up
-
during this period. The privately funded Ronne Expedition
to the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula included
scientists, and the Chilean government supported numerous
expeditions to the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent
islands. The Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic
Expedition conducted glaciologic, geologic, and meteoro-
logic studies along the Princess Martha Coast. French
parties from 1949 to 1953 worked in the area south of the
Adelie Coast. The Australian party led by Law estab-
lished Mawson Station at 64° on the Mawson Coast with a
strong scientific component as part of the planning
effort. A broad spectrum of observations was carried
out, additional areas were explored . and new ~mn~ror
an__- an, ~.,~ ~~" ~~~r~-~-
~enguln rookeries were discovered.
All of this renewed scientific interest helped set the
stage for the International Geophysical Year (IGY)
activities in Antarctica. In 1882-1883, the first Inter-
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national Polar Year (IPY) had been held; 12 nations and
14 stations were involved. The two Southern Hemisphere
stations were established, one on South Georgia by the
Germans and one at Cape Horn by the French.
Emphasis was
placed on meteorology, geomagnetism, and the aurora. The
climatology of the polar regions was greatly enhanced,
and the value of a coordinated synoptic network of
stations was demonstrated.
The second International Polar Year of 1932-1933 again
concentrated on meteorologic, geomagnetic, and auroral
observations. The first IPy had shown that hich-latitude
meteorologic observations were helpful in the understand-
ing of low-latitude processes. The introduction of the
radiosonde for upper air soundings was a key part of the
program. Despite very difficult financial times, the
second IPY was held. Forty-four countries participated.
but still no antarctic station was established.
Following World War II, the idea of a Third Polar Year
began to be discussed. The technology that had been
developed during the war and the increased understanding
of the third dimension was a necessary ingredient to the
understanding of both the atmosphere and the solid earth.
The Third Polar Year soon became the International Geo-
physical Year. The Antarctic was included as an essential
element, and 12 nations agreed to participate in the
establishment of stations on and around the continent.
Forty-eight new stations were established in addition to
the seven already in operation on the peninsula. Eleven
programs, aurora, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, glaciology,
gravity, ionospheric physics, meteorology, international
weather control, oceanography, seismology, biology, and
medicine were included as part of the scientific
program. The antarctic continent was crossed for the
first time, and inland stations were established at the
South Pole, close to the south magnetic pole (Vostok),
and in the middle of Marie Byrd Land (Byrd Station).
The scientific results of the IGY are voluminous, and
an attempt to summarize them here would be frivolous.
The explosion of knowledge about the Antarctic that took
place during this 18-month period provided substantial
results and benefits. What is often neglected is the
fact that the IGY research did not include geology, and
it was not until after the completion of the IGY that
geologic studies became an integral part of research.
A second fact that is often forgotten is that despite
the great increase in research activity during the IGY,
at the end of that effort there were still large areas of
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the continent that remained unexplored and unknown
scientifically. The interior areas of both east and west
Antarctica except for those limited areas traversed by
geophysical or oversnow supply vehicles remained blank on
the available maps. Third, the IGY certainly can be
credited as the international activity that spawned the
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the
Antarctic Treaty. These two international organizations,
each with a special mission, have provided a framework
for continued scientific activity in a peaceful and
essentially apolitical environment that has been marked
by exchange of scientists and scientific data, coordinated
international research efforts, and the continued growth
in our knowledge of the Antarctic and the surrounding
seas.
B IBLIOGRAPHY
American Geographical Society. 1975. History of
Exploration and Scientific Investigation; in Folio 19,
Antarctic Map Folio Series, V. C. Bushnell, editor,
American Geographical Society, NY, 15 plates with text.
Anderson, J. J. 1965. Bedrock Geology of Antarctica:
a summary of exploration 1831-1962; American Geophys.
Union Ant. Res. Series, vol. 6, pp. 1-70.
Bertand, K. J. 1971. Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948;
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Society, Lane Press, Burlington, VT, 55 pp.
Corby, G. A. 1982. The First International Polar Year
(1882/83); in WMO Bulletin, World Meteorological
Organization, pp. 197-214.
Crary, A. P. 1982. International Geophysical Year: Its
Evolution and U.S. Participation; In Antarctic Journal
of the United States, National Science Foundation,
Washington, D.C., Vol. XVII, No. 4, pp. 1-6.
Duncan, Sir George E. R. 1977. The Southern Ocean:
History of Exploration; In Adaptations within
Antarctic Ecosystems, George A. Llano, editor,
Proceedings of the Third SCAR Symposium on Antarctic
Biology, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX, pp.
XV-XXXVIII.
Gould, L. M. 1978. The Emergence of Antarctica; In
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McWhennie, editor, AAAS Selected Symposium t7, Western
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Laursen, V. 1982. The Second International Polar Year
(1932/33); In WHO Bulletin, pp. 214-222.
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Nicolet, M. 1982. The International Geophysical Year
1957/58; in WHO Bulletin, pp. 222-231.
United States Board on Geographic Names. 1956.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
ross ice
