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APPENDIX
A
Methods for Sampling and
Analysis of Red Spruce Data
Red spruce were surveyed during the summer of 1982 at
11 sites in New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, West
Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina. The northern
sites were emphasized. Mount Washington, Mount Mansfield,
and Whiteface Mountain were selected because they had
operating weather stations at their summits. The sites
in the southern Appalachians were selected as typical
stands through consultation with local foresters. Hunter
and Plateau mountains in the Catskill Mountains (New
York) were selected on the basis of the stand descrip-
tions of McIntosh and Hurley (1964).
Transects were established with an altimeter at
arbitrary elevations on east- and west-facing slopes. On
Mount Washington, Mount Mansfield, and Whiteface Mountain,
transects 100 m long were established parallel to eleva-
tional contours at 50-m intervals through the spruce-fir,
transition, and hardwood forests. The elevations of the
transects generally ranged from 1100 to 650 m. The
elevation of a given transect was adjusted if topographic
conditions so dictated. At the other sites an arbitrary
elevation judged to be representative of the stand was
selected and a transect 600 m long was established.
Sampling along the transects was designed to meet three
major objectives: (1) to rate the extent of deterioration
of spruce in the canopy, (2) to determine the percentage
of dead spruce across a variety of size classes, and (3)
to obtain increment cores to determine canopy age and for
tree ring analysis.
To determine the extent of deterioration of spruce in
the canopy, sampling points were established at 2s-m
intervals by tape if practical, or by pacing. The
nearest spruce greater than 10-cm diameter breast height
(dbh) in the canopy in each quadrant around the sampling
435
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436
point was rated using a four-point scale as follows: 1,
little or no loss of foliage in the upper crown. 2, loss
of foliage from the top of the crown and/or some loss of
foliage on the outer tips of live branches; total loss of
foliage from the upper portion of the crown less than 50
percent. 3, loss of foliage and dieback of the upper
crown greater than 50 percent. 4, dead. A zero was
recorded if there were no red spruce in a quadrant within
an arbitrary distance of the sampling point (usually 12.5
m). At lower elevations in hardwood dominated forests,
the sampling intervals were extended in some locations so
as to include a reasonable number of spruce.
Results are recorded in Table A.1. At each sampling
point, the nearest live red spruce greater than 10-cm dbh
in the canopy was cored to estimate canopy ages. Two
cores per tree were extracted at 1.2 m above ground
surface, parallel to the topographic contours. At each
cored tree an estimate of stand basal area was made using
a wedge prism (basal area factor = metric 2.5). This
estimate has a slight positive bias, as the sampling
point was always located within 1 m of a cored tree.
species, dbh, and live/dead status of each stem in the
prism were recorded and used to estimate the percentage
of live and dead red spruce in each dbh class. To get a
sample of dominant trees for tree ring analyses, stands
between 800 and 950 m were sampled for red spruce and
balsam fir. (See Figures 6.8 to 6.10.) A subset of
cores was collected from trees that were in class 1 or 2,
had no sign of past injury, and were taller than the
neighboring trees. This subset included some cored trees
from the intermediate elevation transects as well as
spruce from nearby if all spruce at the sampling point
were class 3 or 4. Occasionally class 3 trees were
sampled if they were the only ones available. Fifteen
trees (two cores per tree) that cross-dated well were
used for the analyses. This sample is biased in favor of
more vigorous trees.
Tree ring index chronologies shown in Figures 6.8 to
6.10 were produced by D. Duvick and T. J. Blasing at Oak
Ridge National Laboratories for the Forest Response to
Anthropogenic Stress (FORAST) program (McLaughlin et al.
1983). We gratefully acknowledge their contributions.
Measured cores were cross-dated with a skeleton-plot
technique (Stokes and Smiley 1968) to assure accurate
determination of the date of each ring measured.
The time series of annual growth measurements for any
given core will typically contain two types of variation:
come ~ oss off
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TABLE A. 1 Determination of the Extent of Deterioration in Red Spruce at
Selected Sites in the Eastern United States
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Site Name Z
Mt. Washington, East 017 65 12 18 06 1120 50
019 42 00 32 26 1060 38
019 53 05 16 26 1000 42
020 50 15 20 15 0950 34
020 25 15 35 25 0900 39
019 53 26 11 11 0850 32
018 28 22 22 28 0800 34
016 50 19 12 19 0750 33
017 41 12 00 47 0700 32
020 55 30 05 10 0650 34
Mt. Washington, West 020 25 25 30 20 1150 36
020 15 35 30 20 1100 40
020 35 10 35 20 1050 39
020 15 25 40 20 1000 37
020 55 15 15 15 0950 32
020 45 15 20 20 0900 37
020 40 15 05 40 0850 42
020 60 20 00 20 0800 34
020 60 15 10 15 0750 32
020 60 20 00 20 0700 36
Mt. Mansfield, East 015 07 07 47 40 1120 26
019 37 05 37 21 1060 30
020 20 15 25 40 1000 31
017 12 18 29 41 0950 25
008 50 00 12 38 0900 29
016 38 25 12 25 0850 24
018 28 28 00 44 0800 29
013 46 15 15 23 0750 26
013 54 15 08 23 0700 28
012 75 08 00 17 0650 24
Mt. Mansfield, West 020 20 10 35 35 1050 18
018 11 22 45 22 1000 26
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438
TABLE A.1 (continued)
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Mt. Mansfield, West 020 35 05 25 35 0950 22
019 26 21 05 47 0900 30
020 25 20 15 40 0850 32
020 35 25 15 25 0800 24
Whiteface Mtn., East 020 10 10 45 35 1110 28
019 16 42 26 16 1060 31
017 24 47 18 12 1000 42
018 56 28 00 17 0950 30
014 50 29 14 07 0900 28
014 00 79 00 21 0850 41
019 00 63 21 16 0800 40
016 38 56 00 06 0750 33
020 50 35 05 10 0700 30
020 45 40 10 05 0650 27
Whiteface Mtn., West 019 26 21 21 32 1220 34
020 00 20 40 40 1150 34
014 14 14 29 43 1070 34
020 25 20 25 30 1000 36
018 28 44 00 28 0950 42
017 47 24 06 24 0910 38
020 70 10 10 10 0850 52
019 68 26 00 05 0780 40
018 56 17 00 28 0720 40
020 75 15 00 10 0670 34
Hunter Mtn. 092 48 21 11 20 1052 30
Plateau Mtn. 100 63 20 07 10 1128 35
Shenandoah Natl. Pk. 088 72 08 00 20 1005 40
G. Washington Natl. For. 100 89 07 00 04 1128 32
Monongahela Natl. For. 100 69 10 02 19 1311 48
Whitetop Mtn. 100 84 10 02 04 1524 37
Roan Mtn. 093 83 04 01 12 1768 35
Mt. Mitchell 082 91 04 01 04 1615 36
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439
(1) high-frequency variance owing to the influence of
factors over time intervals of a year or a few years and
(2) low-frequency variance caused by longer-term fluctua-
tions involving factors, such as tree age or stand
development, or long-term climatic changes that have
periods of influence typically extending over several
years or decades. To describe the low-frequency varia-
tions in growth over the tree's life cycle, cubic spline
functions (Biasing et al. 1983, Cook and Peters 1981)
were fitted to the ring-width series of each tree over
discrete time intervals (i.e., before and after a sudden
major release from competition after a known major dis-
turbance such as logging). A spline statistically
delineates a weighted moving average of growth over the
specified time interval. Dividing each ring-width value
by the corresponding value of the spline function produces
a series of ring-width indices (Fritts et al. 1971, Fritts
1976, Blasing et al. 1983) that have a mean of 1.0 and a
variance that is approximately constant through time.
The filtering characteristics of the spline were chosen
to remove low-frequency variance characteristic of the
slow changes in competitive status and tree age but to
preserve intermediate- and high-frequency variance (Nash
et al. 1975, Blasing et al. 1983).
REFERENCES
Blasing, T. J., D. N. Duvick, and E. R. Cook. 1983.
Filtering the effects of competition from ring width
series. Tree Ring Bull. 43:19-30.
Cook, E. R., and K. Peters. 1981. The smoothing spline: A
new approach to standardizing forest interior
tree-ring width series for dendroclimatic studies.
Tree Ring Bull. 41:45-54.
Fritts, H. C. 1976. Tree Rings and Climate. London:
Academic Press.
Fritts, H. C., T. J. Blasing, P. B. Hayden, and J. E.
Kutzbach. 1971. Multivariate techniques for specifying
tree-growth and climate relationships and for
reconstructing anomalies in paleoclimate. J. Appl.
Meteorol. 10:845-864.
McIntosh, R. P., and R. T. Hurley. 1964. The spruce-fir
forests of the Catskill Mountains. Ecology 45:314-326
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440
McLaughlin, S. B., T. J. Blasing, L. H. Mann, and D. N.
Duvick. 1983. Effects of acid rain and gaseous
pollutants on forest productivity. J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc. 33:1042-1048.
Nash, T. III, H. C. Fritts, and M. A. Stokes. 1975. A
technique for examining non-climatic variation in
widths of annual tree rings with special reference to
air pollution. Tree Ring Bull. 35:14-20.
Stokes, M. A., and T. L. Smiley. 1968. An Introduction to
Tree Ring Dating. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
tree ring
