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OCR for page 151
8
Applications of Atomic,
Molecular, and Optical Physics
Atomic, molecular, and optical (AMO) physics lies at a confluence of
basic science, applied science, and technology. The applications of
AMO physics to the needs of society and to our nation's goals are
extensive. They play a conspicuous role in the field, contributing to its
vitality and its diversity; they represent a visible return to society for
its support of basic science.
From a large list of these applications we have chosen to describe
precision measurements, fusion, national security, fiber-optics com-
munication, materials processing, manufacturing with lasers, data-base
services, and medicine. This list, however, is far from comprehensive.
For lack of space, or because the information may not be publicly
available, we have omitted a number of other major activities. Subjects
that are entirely omitted, or are only discussed in passing, include
environmental monitoring, optical data processing and optical comput-
ing, laser isotope separation, inertial confinement, photochemical
processing, and laser weapons systems.
PRECISION MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
The art of high-precision measurement and the application of preci-
sion measurement techniques to basic science and to technology is
strongly entrenched in AMO physics. The tradition can be traced to
Michelson, who invented the Michelson interferometer to search for
151
OCR for page 152
152 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
the ether drift and realized that he could use it to measure machinists'
gauge blocks and length standards to unprecedented precision. The
tradition is very much alive today. Within the past decade there have
been major advances in precision measurements, the most dramatic of
which has culminated in the redefinition of one of the four independent
basic units mass, time, electric current, and length which are gen-
erally considered to make up the cornerstone of physical measurement.
Laser metrology became so precise that the accuracy with which the
speed of light could be measured was limited by the primary standard
of length. As a result, the speed of light was recently fixed by
convention, removing the need for an independently defined standard
of length. Formerly, the meter was defined as a certain multiple of the
wavelength of the red spectral line of krypton; now it is defined as the.
distance that light travels in a certain fraction of the second. (See
Figure 8.1.)
Of all the quantities in physics, time is by far the most accurately
measured. The primary time standard in the United States is an atomic
clock basically an atomic-beam magnetic resonance apparatus lo-
cated at the National Bureau of Standards in Boulder, Colorado. It has
an accuracy of 1 part in 10~3, approximately 3 seconds in one million
years.
Atomic clocks play an essential role in very-long-baseline interfer-
ometry in radio astronomy. Antennas at distant positions in the world
observe radio waves emitted by distant radio galaxies and quasars.
Hydrogen maser atomic clocks at each antenna synchronize recordings
of the phase and amplitude of the signals to a fraction of a microsecond.
The recordings are then taken to a central location where the interfer-
ence patterns formed from the signals are studied. The resultant data
correspond to an angular resolution of 0.0001 arc second, far beyond
the resolution of an optical telescope. (0.0001 arc second is the angle
subtended by 20 centimeters at the distance of the moon.) Atomic
clocks are routinely used to synchronize radio and TV communication
signals, and they are an essential component of a global system of
navigational satellites. The gravitational red shift of time has been
measured with a rocketborne atomic clock that was stable to parts in
1O~5 over a period of hours, as described in Chapter 4 in the section on
Elementary Atomic Physics. (See also Figure 1.1.)
The ultimate precision of a cesium atomic-beam frequency standard
is limited by the brief time the cesium atoms spend in the atomic-beam
apparatus. Appreciably longer interaction times have been obtained by
OCR for page 153
APPLICATIONS OF AMO PHYSICS 153
using electronic traps to store ions, permitting the creation of clocks of
much greater precision. A combination of laser and light radio-
frequency field is used to observe the hyperfine transition of the stored
ion. A technique called laser cooling (described in Chapter 6 in the
section on Laser Spectroscopy) has been successfully applied to
reduce the temperature of the trapped ion, an important advantage for
precision time measurement. Temperatures in the millikelvin range
have been achieved, and still lower temperatures appear to be possible.
Not only will the spectral lines be narrower, but the detectability of a
small number of ions will be enhanced by their localization in microm-
eter-size regions. These trapped ions can be used to create an optical
frequency standard, that is, an atomic clock operating at an optical
frequency rather than a microwave frequency. Neutral atoms have
recently been slowed with laser light, even brought to rest in free
space. It may be possible to trap these atoms and employ them to
create yet another new type of optical atomic clock.
Stable laser sources based on atomic and molecular transitions
opened the way to measuring directly the frequency of light in the
visible spectrum. (The frequency of light is about 106 times higher than
the frequency of microwaves.) This feat was performed with nonlinear
optical devices used to multiply and compare the signals of a series of
lasers operating at successively higher frequencies. The first laser in
the chain was related directly to the cesium frequency standard. The
measurement provided an absolute reference standard for wavelengths
in the visible part of the spectrum; it is this advance that led to the
redefinition of the meter described above.
The ability to measure optical frequencies accurately represents an
important advance in the transfer of electronic techniques from the
radio-wave and microwave regions to optical regions. Advances in
optical communications and optical data processing are already emerg-
ing as part of this revolution.
Another advance in metrology has been made possible by combining
laser interferometry with x-ray diffraction. The technique has been
used to measure directly the ratios of wavelengths of selected x-ray
transitions to precisely known optical wavelengths. (See Figure 8.2.)
These measurements provide calibration lines in the x-ray spectrum
and make it possible to use x-ray measurements on heavy muonic
atoms to make precision tests of quantum electrodynamics (QED).
Furthermore, they have eliminated the need for the X unit formerly
used to link x-ray wavelengths to standards units of length.
OCR for page 154
154 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
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OCR for page 155
APPLICATIONS OF AMO PHYSICS 155
FUSION
The states of reactant material in controlled thermonuclear fusion
devices are varied and extreme. Inertially contained plasmas are
thousands of times more dense than normal solids; magnetically
confined plasmas are a million times less dense than air. Plasma
temperatures can reach 108 degrees. Atomic and molecular physics
provide vital expertise and essential data needed for designing thermo-
nuclear fusion reactors. Fusion research also contributes to atomic
physics, for the processes that occur under fusion conditions provide
opportunities to observe at close range atomic phenomena that are
rarely found on Earth, though they may be common elsewhere in the
universe.
Controlled thermonuclear devices burn isotopes of hydrogen to form
an ash of helium and neutrons, with a prodigious energy release. (The
currently envisioned reaction uses tritium and deuterium as fuel.) In
the interior of stars the containment of such a ball of fire is performed
effortlessly by gravity, but containment on Earth presents a major
challenge. Today's efforts focus on two approaches: magnetic confine-
ment, which uses magnetic fields to curb the escape of charged
particles from the plasma, and inertial confinement, in which burning
occurs too quickly for the material to escape. Atomic problems are
involved in each approach.
FIGURE 8.1 The Frequency of Light and the New Meter. The frequencies of
radiowave or microwave signals can be measured quickly and accurately using high-
speed electronic methods to count the number of oscillations in a fixed time interval, for
instance, 1 second. In the optical regime, however, one normally measures wavelength,
using a spectrometer, not frequency. This is because in the past there was no way to
count the high-frequency oscillation of light, typically one million times faster than
microwave signals. Now this has changed. The drawing shows how the frequency of light
has been measured, specifically the frequency of one of the absorption lines in molecular
iodine. A series of highly stable lasers of increasing frequency was compared, using
nonlinear elements to generate harmonics (exact multiples of the frequency) to "jump"
from one frequency to the next. Frequency counters were used to measure the small
differences between the multiples of one laser frequency and the frequency of the next.
The final laser was locked to a narrow absorption line in molecular iodine. Measuring the
frequency of light represents an important advance in metrology, for the frequency of
light can be measured much more accurately than its wavelength. One result of this
measurement is that the meter has been redefined: the meter is no longer defined as a
certain number of wavelengths of a spectral line in krypton; the meter is now defined as
the distance that light travels in exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. The experiment marks
an important step toward transferring electronic techniques to optical frequencies.
(Courtesy National Bureau of Standards.)
OCR for page 156
156 A TOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICA ~ PHYSICS
~ OPTICAL FRINGE
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DISTANCE ~
FIGURE 8.2 Measuring the Distance Between Atoms. It is relatively straightforward
to measure distance on the scale of 1 meter to 1 part in 106 or better. The wavelength of
light is less than a millionth of a meter and with modern laser interferometry the number
of wavelengths between two surfaces can be counted directly. Accurately measuring
distance shorter than the wavelength of light, however, is a much more challenging
problem. The distance between atoms in a crystal is less than a thousandth of the
wavelength of light, but this distance can be measured to high accuracy using an
apparatus that simultaneously combines x-ray and optical interferometry shown in (a).
Once calibrated, the crystal can then be used to measure the wavelength of x rays to
about the same accuracy.
The heart of the device is an x-ray interferometer made of a single crystal of silicon.
(The creation of such crystals is one of the important scientific advances made possible
by the semiconductor device industry.) The interferometer, which is composed of three
slabs, can be seen at the top of (a). One of the slabs slides laterally, translated by a
mechanical stage composed of a series of levers and hinges formed by the holes and slots
in the block. Every time it moves by a distance equal to the spacing between atoms in the
crystal, the x-ray interference pattern creates a new fringe. The movement is governed
by a feedback signal from a laser-driven optical interferometer. The arrangement of the
two interferometers is shown in (b). Data showing a single spike from the optical
interferometer superimposed on the rapidly varying x-ray fringe are shown in (c). The
OCR for page 157
APPLICA TIONS OF AMO PHYSICS 157
Magnetic Confinement
The major problem in magnetic confinement is to insulate the plasma
from the vacuum vessel. Bremsstrahlung and line radiation from the
capture of electrons into excited states by medium- and high-,
impurity ions, such as iron and tungsten, are important cooling
processes, for the plasma is so tenuous that the radiation flows
unhindered to the walls. Electron recombination processes play a
crucial role in governing this energy loss, for they determine the charge
states of the ions. The dominant process is resonant or dielectronic
recombination. For tungsten under typical tokamak conditions, for
example, at a temperature of 1 keV, if dielectronic recombination is
neglected the average charge state is +50; when it is included, the
charge state is +28 and the radiation loss is drastically decreased.
Until recently, dielectronic recombination had never been observed
directly, and plasma modeling had to rely solely on theoretical rates.
Experiments are now possible, and four independent measurements of
this process have been made, as described in Chapter 4 in the section
on Atomic Dynamics. The results are startling: discrepancies between
the experimental values and the theoretical predictions have been as
large as a factor of 5. Understanding this process quantitatively is a
vital problem for the fusion plasma modeling effort.
Line radiation from impurities in the plasma is a valuable diagnostic
probe of the reactant material. Forbidden transitions to the ground
states of elements whose ionization energies are near the electron
temperature are particularly useful. These lines reveal the ion temper-
atures by their Doppler profiles and provide ion transport information
by their relative line intensities. Unfortunately, the energy levels for
highly stripped species are not commonly known: much of the neces-
sary spectroscopic work has had to be carried out on the fusion plasma
itself. Such studies are expensive, and they cannot provide the data
needed for the next generation of fusion devices. This information can,
however, be provided from sources such as laser-produced laboratory
plasmas, fast-ion beams, and ion-beam-pumped gases. The experimen-
measurement depends on being able to move the interferometer with a resolution much
finer than the size of an atom. The enormous resolution of the interferometer is shown
by the blowup of one of the x-ray fringes (d). By comparing the x-ray and optical fringe
patterns, the distance between the atoms in the silicon crystal can be found directly in
terms of the wavelength of light to an accuracy of about 1 part in 107. Crystals calibrated
by this method can be used to measure x-ray and gamma-ray wavelengths to about the
same accuracy. (Courtesy of the National Bureau of Standards.)
OCR for page 158
158 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
tat studies need to be accompanied by theoretical research, particularly
on many-electron systems in which relativistic and QED effects are
large.
The most successful heating method for several fusion devices is to
inject fast neutral atoms of hydrogen, which are ionized and trapped in
the reactor. Premature ionization of the neutral beam by collisions with
highly stripped impurities on the plasma sheath is a potential problem.
New data on electron loss from molecular hydrogen in collisions with
highly charged impurity species suggest that early estimates were
overly pessimistic and that adequate penetration into the core of
today's devices is possible. Little direct data for atomic hydrogen is yet
available, however. For the very large machines planned more ener-
getic neutral beams are needed. These beams currently are created by
accelerating singly charged ions, H+ or D+, to the desired energy and
then neutralizing them by charge exchange in a gas such as H2 or D2.
Unfortunately, at high energy the electron capture cross section is too
small for the method to be practical. This problem could be avoided by
using high currents of negative ions of light elements. Such ions can
easily be stripped of their outer electrons, even at high energies. The
physics of single-electron detachment methods for millielectron-volt
negative ions remains to be explored.
Hydrogen and light impurities in the center of the plasma are
generally fully ionized. However, a neutral hydrogen concentration as
low as 1 part in 105 can drastically change the ionization state
distribution in the plasma and the energy loss due to radiation from
impurities. The radiation loss is governed by charge exchange into
excited states of the highly stripped impurities. Experimental total
cross sections for these processes have become available, but cross
sections into particular final states need to be known, and these are so
far available only theoretically.
Inertial Confinement
Many of the collision and spectroscopic parameters of concern to
magnetic-containment fusion are also important in inertially contained
plasmas. One problem that is specific to inertial confinement is
development of an efficient driver for compressing the reactant mate-
rial to ignition conditions. For example, development of a high-pow-
ered short-wavelength laser with a well-chosen pulse shape could
provide a more efficient driver than existing CO2 or Nd: glass lasers: the
KrF excimer laser is one candidate. An ion beam is a possible
alternative to laser light for compressing the reactants. A central
OCR for page 159
APPLICA TIONS OF AMO PHYSICS 159
question in ion-beam compression is how fast ions stop in material
whose density and temperature are high. A vast number of ion-electron
and ion-ion collision processes must be understood.
The spectroscopic needs of inertial confinement present an ad-
ditional complication: the plasma is so dense that it can cause signifi-
cant changes in the energy-level structure of the ions. For example,
shifts of tens of electron volts are expected in the Lyman-alpha
radiation from argon. X radiation from the plasma core is the major
diagnostic signal that can penetrate the compressed material, but to
interpret the signal it is essential to understand the structure of highly
relativistic systems, including energy levels, transition rates and fluo-
rescence yields, and satellite structures. Extremely high Z ions occur
in ablative pusher targets, which use thin shells of, for example, gold (Z
= 79), for which QED shifts to the energy-level structure are impor-
tant. In addition to this spectroscopic information, diagnostic interpre-
tation of the spectra require that the inner-shell ion-ion and ion-
electron collision processes, which are responsible for production of
the needed inner-shell vacancies, be well understood. The very fast
decay of inner-shell vacancies through radiationless transitions pro-
vides a femtosecond or even attosecond time scale that makes it
possible in principle to utilize these Auger processes to probe the
dynamics of the target compression. A thorough theoretical under-
standing of the de-excitation of deep vacancies in multiply ionized
atoms is required for this purpose. Although much information on
ion-atom collisions has become available over the past decade, exper-
imental work on inner-shell vacancy production in ion-ion collisions is
rare.
Considering all these problems, it is evident that the fusion energy
program will continue to demand intensive efforts from atomic physics.
NATIONAL SECURITY
AMO physics contributes to the national security by providing basic
information and devices that are vital to our defense systems. The
challenge of accurate navigation offers one example. Atomic clocks
and frequency standards are at the heart of our modern navigational
systems. The accuracy of these devices is prodigious clocks with an
accuracy approaching parts in 10'5 have been developed, and even
higher accuracy appears to be possible. Atomic clocks are used in a
precise positioning system that makes it possible to determine where
one is anywhere on Earth to within 10 meters. The system can be used
OCR for page 160
160 A TONIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICA f PHYSICS
for civil as well as military navigation. The creation of the atomic
clocks and frequency standards that make this system possible drama-
tizes the interplay between basic and applied science in atomic physics.
These devices grew out of basic research in spectroscopy and the
structure of matter. In addition to their role in navigation, they are
crucial to the operation of secure communications systems, and they
have applications in areas of science such as very-long-baseline
interferometry, determination of the fundamental constants, and tests
of relativity.
Atomic clocks in use include the hydrogen maser, the cesium atomic
beam clock, and the optically pumped rubidium cell. The precision of
these devices is ultimately limited by the second-order Doppler effect,
the time dilation due to the motion of the atoms. To overcome this
barrier, the motion of the atoms must be eliminated. Stored ion
spectroscopic techniques provide one solution. During the last 5 years
enormous strides have been made in designing ion traps and in cooling
trapped ions to a small fraction of a kelvin. Recently a beryllium-ion
frequency standard has been operated within a stability that is within a
factor of 3 of high-performance cesium-beam devices. Future work
using mercury ions is expected to improve this by several factors of 10.
Another technique that can reduce the second-order Doppler effect
is the cooling and trapping of neutral atoms. An atomic beam of sodium
has been cooled to 4 percent of its original velocity. This advance has
catalyzed interest in atom traps, for if the atoms are sufficiently slow
they can be trapped and stored in a neutral-particle trap.
The problem of communicating with submarines provides a second
example of how AMO research can play an important role in the
national defense. Our nuclear fleet is the least vulnerable of all of our
defense systems. Communicating with the submarines, however, is
difficult because radio waves are strongly absorbed by seawater. Laser
communication is a promising technique. Ocean water has a spectral
window in the blue-green region. A number of laser systems are being
studied for generating blue-green light for this application and also for
underwater surveillance, for illumination, and for bathymetry. The
excimer lasers, which are described in Chapter 6 in the section on
Lasers The Revolution Continues are particularly promising. Be-
cause these lasers operate in the violet and ultraviolet, their light must
be downshifted to the blue-green. Several atomic gases are promising
candidates, including barium, bismuth, and lead. These vapors, how-
ever, require high temperatures, and they are corrosive. Raman-
shifting techniques using the molecules hydrogen and deuterium pro-
vide a second approach for shifting the light from the ultraviolet to the
OCR for page 161
APPLICATIONS OF AMO PHYSICS i61
blue-green. Work continues toward developing a system that satisfies
all the requirements of wavelength, efficiency, power, and lifetime.
A highly sensitive frequency-selective detector is needed for most of
the applications of the blue-green laser. One proposed device is based
on atomic absorption and fluorescence. A narrow-band, wide-field-of-
view detector can be created by enclosing an atomic gas between two
filters. The first filter transmits the to-be-detected radiation, while the
second filter blocks it. The light excites a resonance transition in the
gas. The fluorescence occurs at a different wavelength, which is
transmitted by the second filter. Very high quantum efficiency has
recently been achieved with this scheme.
Highly sensitive frequency-selective detectors have military appli-
cations in the optical, infrared, and millimeter-wave regions. One
scheme for a millimeter/submillimeter detector exploits the high ab-
sorption cross sections of highly excited Rydberg atoms for very-long-
wavelength radiation. A pair of Rydberg states is chosen to be resonant
with the incident radiation. By putting the system in an electric field so
that the higher Rydberg state is field ionized while the lower is not, one
produces, on absorption of a photon, a free electron, which is readily
detected. The system behaves like a phototube for millimeter waves
and microwaves, with the additional advantage of being highly fre-
quency selective.
The high power and high efficiency of carbon dioxide lasers devel-
oped over the past decade suggest the potential for application for
high-resolution radar. Unfortunately, their radiation at a wavelength of
10 micrometers can be attenuated under certain atmospheric condi-
tions. Many atmospheric windows exist in the millimeter and submil-
limeter regions, however, and although efficient lasers are not available
at these frequencies, the radiation can be generated by pumping
various organic molecules with a CO2 laser.
The free-electron laser has been demonstrated in the past decade.
This device is potentially capable of generating highly efficient, tunable
short-wavelength radiation. Radiation at 1.5 micrometers has been
generated with almost 10 watts of power, and the device has been
operated in the visible. Chemical lasers are another class of high-power
lasers of molecular interest. These, too, are quite efficient, though
restricted with respect to wavelength.
High-power laser, microwave, and particle-beam devices require
high-power switches that can operate at rates greater than 1 kilohertz,
pass more than 10 kiloamps, and hold off more than 50 kilovolts.
Spark-gap and diffuse discharge switches are two possible gaseous
devices. There is no difficulty in closing such switches rapidly, but
OCR for page 164
164 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
MANUFACTURING WITH LASERS
Industrial applications for lasers were evident when the first ruby
laser punched a hole through metal. The earliest applications were all
highly specialized, but lasers are now also employed for numerous
routine manufacturing tasks. (See Figure 2.2.) Their use is spreading
rapidly, and lasers can be expected to play major roles in wide areas of
the U.S. industrial enterprise in years to come.
Foremost among the advantages of lasers for materials processing
and manufacturing are these:
Lasers can deliver energy at far greater density than is possible by
any other technology. The ability to achieve high temperature in short
times permits laser processing of almost any material and opens the
way to new machining, welding, annealing, heat treating, and chemical
procedures.
—Laser light is effectively inertialess and it can be focused with
optical precision. As a result, lasers are ideally adapted to automatic
control techniques, to robotics, and to high-speed processing of
intricate shapes. Thus, lasers are expected to play an increasingly
important role in the development of new flexible manufacturing
plants.
Laser Drilling: Lasers are used to drill both exotic and ordinary
material. Tasks include highly specialized applications such as drilling
diamond-wire pulling dies and creating multitudes of air-cooling holes
in jet engines and routine jobs such as for drilling holes in baby-bottle
nipples. Laser drilling is practical for all the metals, plus ceramics,
gemstones, semiconductors, plastics, wood, and rubber.
Laser Cutting: Laser cutting employs the light to heat the
workpiece to its melting temperature and a jet of gas to remove the
vaporized or molten material. The focused laser beam acts as an
effective point tool, a tool that never makes physical contact with the
material. Applications range from cutting out suit patterns to cutting
sheet-metal parts. In addition to textiles and metals, the list of
materials that can be cut includes ceramics, quartz, glass, composites
and exotic aerospace materials, plastics and fiber-reinforced plastics,
wood, leather, and fiberboard.
Laser Welding: Because laser light can be accurately controlled
and directed, laser welding is a direct competitor to electron-beam
welding. However, laser welding has an important advantage. It does
OCR for page 165
APPLICATIONS OFAMO PHYSICS 165
not require the workpiece to be under vacuum; room conditions are
sufficient. Most applications include metals and metal alloys, though
some nonmetals can be welded. In some cases, it is practical to weld
dissimilar material that could not otherwise be joined. One-half-inch
steel plate is routinely welded; even thicker materials can sometimes
be handled.
Other Applications: Lasers are used in the semiconductor industry
for annealing, resistor trimming, and silicon scrubbing. Lasers are used
for marking, soldering, and surface treatments including hardening,
cladding, and alloying. For example, one factory that manufactures
power-steering units currently uses 20 laser systems to heat treat the
guiding surfaces.
The Future: The factory of the future is expected to be highly
automated. The laser, which lends itself naturally to operation under
control systems and to automation, provides an ideal technology. The
Japanese government has recently initiated a $60 million, 5-year joint
university/industry program to study flexible manufacturing systems
with lasers, including the integration of lasers with control systems.
Approximately 6000 lasers are currently used in factories around the
world. Altogether more than 1000 lasers were sold for material
processing in 1982, with prices ranging from $5000 to $500,000. The
market for laser material-processing equipment has been growing
at 20 percent per year over the past several years, and this rate is
expected to be maintained over the next decade. In 1982, the sales
were $110 million; in 1992 they are expected to be $700 million. At the
end of the decade lasers will be commonplace in manufacturing plants
ranging from small shops to heavy industrial plants and automated
factories. The economic benefit to the United States from the use of
lasers in manufacturing and materials processing is expected to be
enormous: one survey estimates that lasers will lead to the creation of
600,000 new jobs in these areas (Newsweek, Vol. 108, p. 78, October
18, 1982).
The question of manpower is a potentially serious problem for the
orderly development of laser-based manufacturing in the United
States. There is already a shortage of qualified personnel in the optics
and electro-optics industries. As discussed in Chapter 2, the total
production in the United States of physicists with Ph.D. degrees in
optics is less than 50 a year; the production at the bachelor's level is
also small. Unless this problem is successfully addressed, our manu-
facturing capability may be limited by a personnel shortage.
OCR for page 166
166 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
MATERIALS PROCESSING
Laser-Induced Surface Chemistry
Laser-induced surface chemistry provides new processing tech-
niques with applications in semiconductor electronics and electro-
optics. Submicrometer features have been produced in a single proc-
essing step, and novel microstructures have been made.
In one process, a focused laser beam drives a small-scale chemical
reaction at the surface, either in the gas or liquid phase. Submicrometer
patterns can be produced by doping, etching, and deposition all based
on laser-controlled chemistry. The deposition rate can be much larger
than possible by any other means. In a second process, radiation from
a high-power laser creates radicals in gas-phase parent molecules that
then react at the surface. The exact reaction can be specified by
selecting the proper laser wavelength. Since the dissociation occurs i
the gas phase, substrate heating is negligible.
Lasers can be used to dope surfaces and to etch them. Typically, a
pulsed excimer laser is used to photodissociate a gas-phase compound
and simultaneously to melt a nearby substrate. A small amount of
doping can be incorporated with each pulse. Both Si and GaAs have
been doped using this technique.
Dry etching of dielectrics, semiconductors, and polymers can be
achieved by photodissociating methyl-containing compounds. By illu-
minating solid polymers with high-intensity, pulsed, UV light, photo-
chemical decomposition of the polymer cross-linking can cause well-
defined surface etching.
Ion Implantation
The bulk properties of solids can be altered or completely trans-
formed by the introduction of small amounts of impurity atoms.
Accelerator-based atomic physics has created techniques for introduc-
ing these impurities in highly novel fashions. Using a small accelerator,
ion-implantation methods allow impurities to be added free from the
usual material constraints of diffusion and solid solubility. Ion bom-
bardment can create electrically insulating layers or new surface
alloys; ion-induced defects can induce material diffusion or ion-induced
segregation. Near-surface modification by ion bombardment has pro
duced amorphous metals and led to the creation of surfaces that are
tough and relatively free from corrosion and oxidation. Ion-implanta-
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APPLICATIONS OF AMO PHYSICS 167
tion methods have been applied to the epitaxial growth and doping of
diamonds and to the creation of ion-implanted solar cells.
Ion- and molecular-beam techniques are now used for the production
of integrated circuits. Ion beams can be controlled so precisely that it
is possible to construct integrated circuits directly on a silicon wafer.
Using molecular-beam epitaxy, solids can be produced in layers of
precisely controlled thickness. The layers can be only a few atoms
thick.
High-power lasers provide a unique tool for annealing the surface of
solids and providing diffusion in a limited region. A very short
pulse-probe laser can be used to monitor the state of the surface and
study the dynamics of the melt.
DATA-BASE SERVICES
AMO physics provides atomic and molecular data that are essential
to wide areas of science and technology and to our nation's energy,
military, and environmental programs. An enormous growth of raw
data has been made possible by advances in laser spectroscopy, in
neutral- and charged-particle scattering, and in theoretical and compu-
tational methods. To be useful, it is essential that the data be accurately
evaluated, systematically compiled, and efficiently disseminated. Here
is a summary of some of the applications.
Laser Physics and Development: Electron and photon collision cross
sections and potential energy curves are essential for modeling laser
plasmas and designing high-power lasers. Atomic-energy levels, wave-
lengths, transition probabilities, and atomic lifetimes are needed to
model lasing action and to assess probable population inversions.
Recombination cross-section data are required for the design of
gas-discharge lasers.
Nuclear Fusion Energy: Requirements include collision rates and
cross sections for electron impact excitation, ionization, and
dielectronic recombination; atomic-energy levels and wavelengths for
identification of impurity elements in fusion plasmas, for plasma
diagnostics and modeling, and for calculating plasma-cooling effects
due to radiation from impurity atoms; photon mass attenuation coef-
ficients and electron stopping powers are needed to design reactor
blankets.
Isotope Separation: Atomic-energy levels, transition probabilities,
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168 ATOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
and lifetimes are all needed in order to design a laser isotope-separation
process.
Atmospheric Monitoring: Photon and electron interaction data are
essential for understanding such problems as radio-wave propagation
in the ionosphere, the theory of the aurora, cosmic-ray-induced
cascade showers and carbon-14 production in the atmosphere. Molec-
ular spectral data are needed for remote sensing of the complex
chemistry of the polluted atmosphere.
Medical Physics: Photon attenuation data are required for cancer
therapy using accelerator and isotopic sources of radiation and for the
imaging studies and dosimetry of internal nuclear medicine.
Industrial Applications: The needs are broad. To cite two examples:
electron and photon attenuation and cross-section data are required to
determine the effectiveness of ionizing radiation for food processing,
the sterilization of medical supplies, and chemical processing such as
the polymerization of plastics; atomic-energy levels, lifetimes, and
transition probabilities are needed for laser development, surface-
property studies, and the design of lamps for street lighting and other
applications.
National Security: Atomic transition probability data are essential
for modeling nuclear explosions in the atmosphere; photon attenuation
data are needed to design shielding against ionizing radiation from
nuclear weapons. Atomic-energy level, lifetime, and transition proba-
bility data are all needed for x-ray laser development.
Astrophysics: The needs include extensive electron excitation, ion-
ization; and recombination data on astrophysical ions. Wavelengths,
atomic-energy levels, and transition probabilities are needed for iden-
tifying spectral lines and determining the elemental composition of
astrophysical sources.
Most atomic and molecular data centers in the United States are
associated with the National Standard Reference Data System, man-
aged by the Office of Standard Reference Data at the National Bureau
of Standards. This program develops important data bases of physical
and chemical properties needed by industry, academia, and govern-
ment. The program coordinates the activities of 23 continuing Data
Centers and 31 shorter-term Projects.
Each major Data Center monitors an important disciplinary area and
develops and maintains a major data base that is subsequently made
available in published, computer-readable, and on-line formats. The
Projects answer the need for specialized data bases in particularly
important areas. The scientists associated with the Data Centers and
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APPLICA TIONS OF AMO PH YSICS 169
Project monitor the literature in their fields of expertise, compile and
evaluate data, mathematically predict data in difficult to measure
regions, and prepare major compilations and data bases for the U.S.
technical community.
Computer-based data networks can now be created. Such networks
are essential to meet the nation's growing needs for AMO data and data
from other disciplines.
MEDICAL PHYSICS
AMO physics contributes to the basic science of medicine and to the
creation of new techniques for medical practice. We describe here two
activities: laser surgery and NMR body imaging.
Laser Surgery
Laser surgery is becoming a standard practice as lasers replace
scalpels in more and more surgical procedures. Fields include general
and cardiovascular surgery, urology, dermatology, dentistry, plastic
surgery, and oral surgery. A recent conference on medical and surgical
application of lasers attracted 1300 physicians and surgeons from 31
countries.
One type of cervical cancer that formerly required a hysterectomy
can now be treated in a doctor's office or on an outpatient basis using
CO2 laser light. A simple, painless procedure provides a high cure rate
for a condition that otherwise demands a major operation. The magic
of the laser light is in its being able to remove the malignant cells
without disturbing the underlying tissue. Lasers are used by eye
surgeons for procedures that include repair of a detached retina,
treatment of diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and iridectomy. All of
these procedures capitalize on the ability to control and deliver the
laser's energy with extremely high precision. Treatment of diabetic
retinopathy, for example, involves destroying cells on the outer layer
of the retina without damaging the underlying layer. Iridectomy
requires making a tiny hole in the iris, which the laser can do without
damaging any of the nearby tissue.
Laser surgery is intrinsically sterile. The radiation tends to cauterize
a wound, reducing the bleeding and scarring. Optical fibers can deliver
the light precisely where it is needed. For example, fatty deposits that
clog coronary arteries can be vaporized by laser light delivered through
a fiber-optic endoscope. The method holds the promise of revolution-
izing coronary arterial surgery.
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170 ATOMIC, MOl ECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
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APPLI CA TI ONS OF AMO PH YSI CS 1 7 1
The wide range of wavelengths available from different lasers is an
important asset to laser surgery. Infrared radiation from CO2 lasers is
most commonly used to remove tissue. The radiation is absorbed
rapidly by water and is effective in coagulating blood vessels. Eye
surgery generally employs green light from argon-ion lasers, since this
is transmitted freely by the lens and the aqueous humor. Argon-ion
laser light is also used to treat crimson birthmarks: the light passes
through the skin and is absorbed by the underlying blood capillaries
that are responsible for the unsightly stain and congeals them.
In certain applications, laser light can be used to induce therapeutic
photochemical reactions. For instance, tumors can be treated by
injecting the patients with the chemical HPD, which is selectively
retained by malignant cells. Red light from a tunable dye laser excites
the HPD, which transfers the excitation to the cell, killing it. The
technique provides a new field of therapy for cancer.
Magnetic-Resonance Whole-Body Imaging
Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) it is now possible to peer
into the human body as gently and clearly as we view its surface. (See
Figure 8.3.) Magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI) is nonperturbing,
noninvasive, and free of ionizing radiation. It can achieve spatial
resolution of 1 mm and can often clearly distinguish different types of
tissue. As far as is known, the method is without biological hazard.
Recent trials using first-generation equipment have demonstrated MRI
to be useful for detecting diseases in the brain, spinal column, heart,
thorax, abdomen, liver, and kidneys. MRI has aroused the intense
FIGURE 8.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Nuclear magnetic resonance provides a
new way to form images of the body's interior using a noninvasive procedure that is
believed to be without hazard. In contrast to x rays, magnetic resonance imaging can
display the differences between soft tissues. Tumors or lesions and differences between
diseased and healthy tissue can often be identified precisely and rapidly. The upper
picture shows a cross-sectional image through the midplane of the head. The spinal nerve
is clearly visible. The lower image (facing right) is through a parallel plane passing
through the eye. The orbit lens and optic nerve are easily discerned. The data collection
time for each of these images was slightly over 3 minutes. Magnetic resonance imaging
is expected to have a major impact on medical diagnosis. It is made possible by
contributions from many fields: magnetic resonance from AMO physics, tomographic
techniques developed by mathematicians and medical physicists, and superconducting
magnets from low-temperature research. Minicomputers and modern data-processing
techniques also play a vital role. (Courtesy of General Electric Research and Develop-
ment, Schenectady, New York.)
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172 A TOMIC, MOLECULAR, AND OPTICAL PHYSICS
interest of both the medical community and the commercial sector:
some practitioners believe that it provides the biggest single advance in
medical diagnosis since the discovery of x rays.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has been used in chemis-
try and biochemistry laboratories for over 30 years as an analytical tool
to study the conformation and dynamics of biological molecules.
Within the last 5 years two new variants of the MRI technique have
emerged: proton imaging, which makes it possible to produce cross-
sectional pictures of the human body, and phosphorous imaging, which
makes it possible to study physiological function in vivo over volumes
of 50 cm3. For example, phosphorous imaging can distinguish between
healthy and unhealthy tissue, providing information that can be crucial
to cardiologists and peripheral vascular physicians. Applications for
NMR body imaging include the following.
Thorax: Blood produces a strong NMR signal, which reveals the
major vessels and the cardiac chambers. NMR can be used to assess
tissue perfusion, to measure cardiac function, and to examine the
myocardium (i.e., the middle and the thickest layer of the heart wall
composed of muscle). The absence of NMR signals from air-filled lungs
makes it easy to observe a hemorrhagic lung, which might be caused by
pulmonary embolus, pleural effusion, or tumor.
Abdomen: NMR is superior to all the previous methods for diag-
nosing lesions of the liver and for detecting many liver diseases. Cystic
lesions in the urinary tract are easily differentiated from solid lesions.
Aneurisms blood-filled sacs formed by the dilation of the walls of the
abdominal aorta—are clearly demonstrated. The presence of arterio-
sclerosis with degenerative changes in the wall of the descending aorta
can be observed.
Pelvis: NMR scanning of female patients shows the extent of
malignant new growth that infiltrates the ovary, uterus, and cervix. In
males, it can provide a definitive diagnosis of malignant growth before
it invades through the prostate capsule.
Musculo-Skeletal: Observations in patients with rheumatoid arthri-
tis have shown that the presence of inflammation can be imaged,
making it possible to assess the response of the inflammation to
antiinflammatory drug therapy. Imaging can also reveal how a tumor
shrinks as a result of chemotherapy.
Companies in the medical equipment business have been quick to
grasp the commercial potential of MRI technology. At least 15 manu-
facturers are said to have imaging systems available for controlled
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APPLICA TIONS OF AMO PH YSICS 173
clinical research or under development. As of 1983, it was estimated
that investigational MRI systems were in use in 35 U.S. sites and 12
sites abroad. The average cost of this equipment is about $1.3 million
per unit. A total of about $800 million of internal funds has been spent
on MRI systems development by 13 member companies of the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association. The market for MRI systems by
the year 1990 is assessed at about $2 billion to $3 billion.
The development of MRI whole-body imaging required advances
from many areas of science. Understanding of the magnetic resonance
properties of nuclei in various media comes from studies in physical
chemistry and biology; the superconducting magnets, which are essen-
tial parts of the imaging apparatus, are a product of low-temperature
materials research. Minicomputers and modern data-processing tech-
niques also play an essential role. The basic idea, however, magnetic
resonance, is due to Felix Bloch at Stanford University and Edward
Purcell at Harvard University, who developed NMR in 1946 in order to
understand the motions of nuclei in matter. It is difficult to think of an
argument more eloquent than this for the benefit to mankind of basic
. .
researc ~ In science.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
optical physics
