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OCR for page R1
Evaluation of Guidelines for
Exposures to Technologically
Enhanced Naturally
Occurring Radioactive
· ~
Materials
Committee on Evaluation of EPA Guidelines for Exposure to
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
Board on Radiation Effects Research
Commission on Life Sciences
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, DC 1999
OCR for page R2
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS · 2101 CONSTITUTION AVENUE, N.W.
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of
the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard
to appropriate balance.
This report was prepared under Environmental Protection Agency contract 68D70009
between the National Academy of Sciences and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Library of Congress Number 98-83159
International Standard Book Number 0-309-06297-7
A limited number of copies of this report are available from
National Research Council
Board on Radiation Effects Research
Room 342
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
(202) 334-2232
Copyright ~ 1999 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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COMMITTEE ON EVALUATION OF EPA GUIDELINES
FOR EXPOSURE TO NATURALLY OCCURRING
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
BERNARD D. GOLDSTEIN (Chair), UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School,
Piscataway, NJ
MERRIL EISENBUD, Chapel Hill, NC (deceased August 1997)
THOMAS F. GESELL, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID
SHAWKI A. IBRAHIM, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
DAVID C. KOCHER, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
EDWARD R. LANDA, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA
ANSELMO S. PASCHOA, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
CLS ADVISER
FREDERICK R. ANDERSON, Cadwalader, Wickersharn and Taft, Washington, D C
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF
STEVEN L. SIMON, Study Director, Board on Radiation Effects Research
KAREN M. BRYANT, Project Assistant (until 10/23/98)
DORIS E. TAYLOR, Staff Assistant
NORMAN GROSSBLATT, Editor
SPONSOR'S PROJECT OFFICER
LOREN W. SETLOW, US Environmental Protection Agency
111
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BOARD ON RADIATION EFFECTS RESEARCH
JOHN B. LITTLE (Chair), Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
(until 6/30198)
R.J. MICHAEL FRY, Oak Ridge, TN*
S. JAMES ADELSTEIN, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA**
VALERIE BERAL, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
EDWARD R. EPP, Harvard University, Boston, MA**
HELEN H. EVANS, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH**
MERRIL EISENBUD, Chapel Hill, NC (deceased August 1997)
1\IAURICE S. FOX, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
PHILIP C. HANAWALT, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA (member until 6/30/98)
LYNN W. JELINSKI, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
WILLIAM F. MORGAN, University of California, San Francisco**
WILLIAM J. SCHOLL, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX
DANIEL O. STRAM, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
SUSAN W. WALLACE, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont (until 6130/98)
H. RODNEY WITHERS, UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL STAFF
EVAN B. DOUPLE, Director, Board on Radiation Effects Research
RICK JOSTES, Senior Program Officer
STEVEN L. SIMON, Senior Program Officer
CATHERINE S. BERKLEY, Administrative Associate
KAREN BRYANT, Project Assistant (until 10/23/98)
PEGGY JOHNSON, Project Assistant (until 8/19/98)
DORIS E. TAYLOR, Staff Assistant
* New BRER Chair effective 7/l/98
** New members effective 7/l/98
1V
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COMMISSION ON LIFE SCIENCES
THOMAS D. POLLARD (Chairs, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla,
CA
FREDERICK R. ANDERSON, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft, Washington, DC
JOHN C. BAILAR, III, University of Chicago, IL
PAUL BERG, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA
JOANNA BURGER, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ
SHARON L. DUNWOODY, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
JOHN L. EMMERSON, Indianapolis, IN
NEAL L. FIRST, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
URSULA W. GOODENOUGH, Washington University, St. Louis, MO
HENRY W. HEIKKINEN, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO
HANS J. KENDE, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
CYNTHIA J. KENYON, University of California, San Francisco, CA
DAVID M. LIVINGSTON, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA
THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
DONALD R. MATTISON, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
JOSEPH E. MURRAY, Wellesley Hills, MA
EDWARD E. PENHOET, Chiron Corporation, Emeryville, CA
MALCOLM C. PIKE, Norris/USC Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, CA
JONATHAN M. SAMET, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
CHARLES F. STEVENS, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA
JOHN L. VANDEBERG, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San
Antonio, TX
NATIONALRESEARCHCOUNCILSTAFF
PAUL OILMAN, Executive Director
ALVIN G. LAZEN, Associate Executive Director
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance
of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter
granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the
federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the
National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National
Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National
Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs,
encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr.
William A. Wulf is the president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy
matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the
National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal
government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education.
Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of
furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general
policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of
both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing
services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The
Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M.
Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National
Research Council.
V1
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PREFACE
The human propensity to alter our environment has frequently led to
the shifting of the earth's crustal constituents, at times moving naturally
occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in closer proximity to ourselves, and at
other times increasing human radiation exposure by enriching the concentration
of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials
(TENORM).
As a result of a request from the 104th Congress (Section 31 1 of H.R. 2099
and Senate Committee Report 104-318 of H.R. 3666), the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) asked the National Research Council to investigate
and report on the scientific bases for the public recommendations of the EPA
with respect to indoor radon and other naturally occurring radioactive materials.
Specifically, the Research Council was asked to address the question of whether
the differences in guidelines related to NORM and developed by EPA and other
organizations are based upon scientific and technical information or on risk
management policy. The Reseach Council was asked to comment on the relative
merit of any scientific or technical differences and to assess whether there is
relevant scientific information that has not been used in the development of the
guidelines for NORM.
The study began in March of 1997 and a committee of six scientists
including international representation was appointed by the National Research
Council to provide the answers to the specific EPA requests. The committee met
5 times to gather information and to deliberate its findings. Deeply saddened by
the death of one of its members, the committee dedicates its report to that
important member, Dr. Merril Eisenbud.
During the course of He committee's deliberations, several individuals
provided information to the cornrnittee. Appreciation for these contributions is
extended to the following:
Joseph Alvarez, Auxier and Associates
Jean-Claude Dehmel, ANSI/HPS NORM Standard Working Group
William P. Dornsife, Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors
Naomi Harley, New York University Medical Center
Joseph Hezir, EOP Group
. .
V11
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Corey McDaniel, EOP Group
Christopher B. Nelson, Environmental Protection Agency
William A. Mills, Olney, MD
Robert A. Nelson, Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Marty Reape, FMC Corporation
Alan B. Richardson, Environmental Protection Agency
Loren W. Setlow, Environmental Protection Agency
Charles Simmons, Kilpatrick & Stockton, LLP
Robert Simon, Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
Phyllis Sobel, Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Lawrence G. Weinstock, Environmental Protection Agency
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures
approved by the National Research Council's Report Review Committee. The
purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments
that will assist the institution in making the published report as sound as possible
and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity,
evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and
draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative
process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the
review of this report:
Frederick R. Anderson, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft
Raymond D. Cooper, St. Petersburg, FL
Richard J. Guimond, Motorola, Inc.
William A. Mills, Olney, MD
Dade W. Moeller, Dade Moeller & Associates, Inc.
Raymond Paris, Oregon Health Division
Richard B. Setlow, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Charles Simmons, Kilpatrick & Stockton, LLP
While the individuals listed above have provided constructive comments and
suggestions, it must be emphasized that responsibility for the final content of
this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
The committee is very appreciative for the expertise, dedication, and
hard work of the study director, Dr. Steven L. Simon. The attention to
administrative details by Karen Bryant and Doris Taylor from the Research
Council's Board on Radiation Effects Research, is also appreciated.
Bernard D. Goldstein, Chairman
V111
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DEDICATION
In memory of Merri! Eisenbud (1915 - 1997)
This report is in many ways a product of the career of Professor Merril
Eisenbud. Not only was Merril Eisenbud a member of the committee until his
death in August 1997, but his scholarly writings in the discipline of
environmental radiation were important influences for several generations of
students and collaborators, some of whom have served on this committee.
Merril Eisenbud, a truly great scientist and public-health visionary, was one of
the first to actively study and teach the environmental-health implications of
naturally occurring and human-made radioactive substances.
Merril Eisenbud's university studies and remarkable scientific career
spanned the period from the discovery of the neutron in 1932, through the
development of nuclear technology, and finally to the cleanup of the world's
nuclear-weapons complexes. He contributed actively long after the normal age
of retirement; he published a book and several journal articles in his last year.
Merril began his working career as an industrial hygienist for the Liberty
Mutual Insurance Company, engaging in studies of chemical and radiation
hazards in industry from 1936 to 1947. His remarkable talents and energy
allowed him to contribute prolifically as a scientist throughout his career while
holding several demanding managerial positions. These jobs included 12 years
(1947-1959) with the US Atomic Energy Commission, where he was the
founding director of the Health and Safety Laboratory'. From 1954 to 1959, he
served in a dual capacity as laboratory director and manager of the AEC New
York Operations Office. For 2 years (1968-1970), he served as the first
environmental-protection administrator for the City of New York.
Merril Eisenbud's university teaching career began in 1959 when he joined
the New York University Medical Center's Institute of Environmental Medicine
as professor and director of the Laboratory of Environmental Studies. On
retirement from active teaching at NYU in 1984 he continued on as professor
emeritus of environmental medicine. At the time of his death, he was also
distinguished scholar in residence at the Duke University Medical Center and
adjunct professor of environmental sciences and engineering at He University of
North Carolina School of Public Health.
Now the Environmental Measurements Laboratory of the US Department of
Energy
1X
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Merril held a BSEE from the New York University College of Engineering
and two honorary doctoral degrees in science. He was a member of many
national and international committees, including those of agencies of the United
Nations, the National Research Council, and the US government. He had been a
member of the advisory councils of the Electric Power Research Institute, the
Institute of Nuclear Power Operations, and the Beryllium Industry Scientific
Advisory Committee. He was serving the National Research Council as a
member of its Board on Radiation Effects Research at the time of his death.
Among the awards received by Merril were the Hermann M. Biggs Medal
of the New York State Public Health Association, the Arthur H. Compton
Award of the American Nuclear Society, the Gold Medal of the US Atomic
Energy Commission, the Distinguished Achievement Award of the Health
Physics Society, the Life Award of the Power Division of the Institute of
Electronic and Electrical Engineers, and the Taylor Medal of the National
Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. He was an honorary life
fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, a member of the National
Academy of Engineering, a corresponding member of He Brazilian Academy of
Sciences, and a fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine.
Merril published prolifically on environmental radioactivity, urban
pollution, environmental effects of power generation, and human ecology. His
books include four editions of Environmental Radioactivity, the most recent
published in 1997; his autobiography, An Environmental Odyssey (1990~; The
Environment, Technology, and Health: Human Ecology in Historic Perspective
(1978~; and Biological Elects of Electric and Magnetic Fields of Extremely Low
Frequency (1977~. He contributed more than 200 journal articles and book
chapters to the scientific literature.
This report is dedicated to Merril Eisenbud, our friend, mentor, and
colleague.
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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIATION
3. MAJOR SOURCES OF TECHNOEOGICAEEY ENHANCED
NATURAEEY-OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
4. ROLE OF EXPOSURE AND DOSE OR RISK ASSESSMENTS
IN DEVELOPING RADIATION STANDARDS
BASIC APPROACHES TO REGULATING RADIATION
EXPOSURES OF THE PUBLIC
ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH RADIATION
PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY GUIDANCES
AND REGULATIONS FOR NATURAEEY OCCURRING
RADIONUCLIDES
16
25
62
77
92
00
109
8. INDOOR-RADON GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 161
9. OTHER GUIDANCES FOR TENORM
10. COMPARISON OF CURRENT GUIDANCES FOR
TENORM IN THE ENVIRONMENT
188
209
1 1. ISSUES IN DEVELOPING GUIDANCES FOR TENORM 224
12. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
X1
250
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CO~1E~1S (CONDOLED)
MENACES
APPENDS
Radiation Quantities Ad Units
Beams
Acronyms
INFO~^1IO~ 0~ COME GERBER
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