PAPERBACK Free Resources |
||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 315
PART IV.
Stress Management
OCR for page 316
OCR for page 317
Stress and Performance
Seymour Levine
Stanford University School of Medicine
OCR for page 318
page ~
The literature concerning stress is extensive and complex, extending through
fields as varied as clinical applied psychology, anthropology, sociology,
psychosomatic medicine, industrial relations, and epidemiology. Not included in
this list are, of course, the extensive studies dealing with the biochemical and
physiological of the responses to stress. These responses have been involved in
mechanisms as basic as immunological function, metabolic function, and
fundamental psychological processes, such as memory and learning. Since one of
the primary problems in stress research is conceptual, and this problem takes
many forms, there is a great deal of confusion in the field. Because stress
researchers lack a common vocabulary, each writer must define his/her own terms,
and the reader must scrutinize each article carefully in order to understand the
writer's vocabulary. The lack of a uniform and consistent vocabulary is a
substantial impediment to progress and adds materially to the confusion in the
field. Although the term "stress" is used throughout the literature, it is
apparent that this term has multiple meanings, depending upon the particular
field in which the concept is being investigated. Within the context of this
report, we shall attempt to use one set of operational definitions to define
stress, and at least to be consistent with our own definitions of the primary
psychological variables that induce many of the profound long-term effects
commonly attributed to stress. Stress can be approached from a purely behavioral
perspective, and it effects studies on primarily behavioral outcomes. However,
stress has also been viewed predominantly as a physiological and psychosomatic
process, and the outcomes arestudies on either pathophysiological processes or
basic biological processes. This report, however, will focus on an integration
of these two perspectives and present a psychobiological view of stress.
OCR for page 319
Page 3
It is important to note that, historically, the concept of stress has been
predominantly implicated with changes in the endocrine systems. Initially, the
changes were specifically related either to increased secretion of catecholamines
or to activation of the pituitary-adrenal system. The problems are best
illustrated by examining the concept of stress beginning with Selye's (1936)
early work in which he defined a general adaptation syndrome (GAS) in rodents.
This nonspecific response occurred after diverse noxious agents, such as exposure
to cold, surgical injury, spinal shock, and muscular exercise. The essential
argument was that the response did not depend upon the type of agent that
produced it; rather, like inflammation, it was deemed as nonspecific. GAS was
divided into three stages: an alarm reaction, a stage of resistance, and a stage
of exhaustion. The initial stage included activation of the pituitary-adrenal
system and eventually resulted in adrenal hypertrophy, thymicolymphatic
involution, and gastric ulceration if the noxious stimuli persisted. If the
response to the aversive situation was sustained, physiological resistance
ultimately developed, and it was hypothesized that stressed subjects would enter
a third stage--exhaustion--which occurred 1-3 months after the initial exposure.
Problems with this view have occurred at several levels. First, there was an
early emphasis on the physical and chemical aspects of the stressful stimuli, and
we now know that psychosocial stimuli are also potent elicitors of the stress
response. Second, Selye has received much criticism for the "nonspecificity"
view because, with modern hormone assays, it is now possible to detect
differential endocrine responses to certain stimuli. Further, the importance of
the final stage of exhaustion has been questioned. Diseases due to exhaustion of
this syndrome are rare, and, with the exception of a few animal models (e.g.,
OCR for page 320
Page 4
intruders in wild rat colonies ), have not been demonstrated as a response deco
psychosocial stimuli (Allen, 1972). Moreover, a number of physicians have
studied moribund patients and have found that adrenal exhaustion did not occur
even at death. Rather, there is usually increased adrenal output immediately
before and after death (Sandberg et al., 1956~.
The dramatic picture described by Selye is emphatically different from the
present day concept of stress in the lay literature, which includes the daily
troubles and anxieties of commuters and executives. The broader use of the term
has resulted in an urgency to reduce or eliminate stress in both personal and
professional arenas, even though Selye (1974) himself has minimized the
significance of this type of stress and stated that its absence occurs only after
death. This paradoxical situation reveals that we do not have a clear and
generally accepted definition. As a consequence, there is a serious
communication problem and increasing talk about a crisis in stress research (Wolf
et al., 1979). At the very least, there is a growing impatience with the present
state of vagueness in an area so vitally important for issues of health and
quality of life. We believe that much of the controversy over stress theory can
be eliminated through clarification of the "afferent limb," that is, by focusing
on the nature of the stimuli that provoke physiological responses rather than on
the physiological responses themselves. This type of investigation requires an
unusual integration of physiology and psychology--disciplines which have
traditionally been separated--and puts the major emphasis on psychological
variables.
OCR for page 321
Page 5
One of the purposes of this report is to examine the importance of
psychological variables that have been determined to have profound
endocrinological consequences both in animals and humans. In fact, the major
conceptual framework pervading this report is that one of the primary aspects of
stressful stimuli eliciting an endocrine response is psychological in nature.
This perspective is derived from Mason's (1968, 1975a,b) review of
psychoendocrine research, particularly involving the pituitary-adrenal cortical
system. As mentioned above, much of the early stress research had emphasized the
nonspecificity of the organism's response to a wide variety of physical stressors
(Selye, 1950). However, even in the 1950s, it was becoming increasingly apparent
that psychological factors were importantly involved. For example, in one study,
Renold et al. (1951) examined the physiological response of participants in the
Harvard Boat Race. Utilizing a traditional measure of that period, the decline
in eosinophils following stress, they found that eosinophils in the crew members
were markedly lower 4 hours after the race. This decline could have been
attributed solely to the exercise and physical strain, but the investigators also
discovered that the coxswains and coaches had similar eosinophil drops, even
though their stress was purely psychological. In Mason's major review of the
stress literature in 1968, he pointed out that much of the prior work, including
the experiments on physical stimuli, shared one important characteristic, namely,
that a typical aspect of the stressful experience was exposure to novel, strange,
or unfamiliar environments. Therefore, the common thread that may have explained
the animals' response was the psychological dimension of the stimuli, rather than
the particular physical trauma to which they had been exposed. In subsequent
research, Mason (1975a,b) was able to show that when animals are exposed to the
OCR for page 322
Page 6
stimuli in such a way that they do not experience distress or novelty, then
typical stressors such as heat or fasting do not necessarily result in activation
of the pituitary-adrenal system. The concept that psychological variables can
activate, and inhibit, the endocrine system has subsequently received much
support in experimental studies on both animals and humans.
PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM
Although the response to stress can best be defined as a syndrome, which
includes many changes in neurochemical and metabolic processes, for the purposes
of this report we will focus on the response of the pituitary-adrenal system. It
is important to remember, however, that we are utilizing this as a model system.
There is abundant evidence indicating that the hormone function of other
endocrine systems--including insulin, growth hormone, and prolactin--can also be
influenced by psychological variables. In addition, it has been demonstrated
recently that the endorphins are also extremely responsive to stress. In fact,
it appears that almost all of the stimuli capable of eliciting an ACTH response
from the pituitary are also capable of releasing beta endorphins (Guillemin et
al., 1977). There are two reasons for focusing on the pituitary-adrenal system
in illness. First, there is an extensive data base showing the effects of
psychological variables on the pituitary-adrenal system. Second, and perhaps
more important, is the profound influence that adrenal hormones have on many
basic functions related to health.
There have been many attempts in recent years to resolve the issue of the
primary stimuli that elicit the endocrine response, in particular
pituitary-adrenal responses, which occur under conditions of stress. As Mason
OCR for page 323
Page 7
(1975a) pointed '.Ut , when the psychologically threatening or arousing aspects of
the situation were altered, classical stresses such as fasting and heat no longer
activated the pituitary-adrenal system. In the case of heat, there was, in fact,
a reduction in the corticoids when the mode of presentation was gradual. The
importance of the rate of presentation of a particular stimulus was also
demonstrated in another experiment that used a potent physiological insult to
induce adrenocortical activity. Hemorrhage in the magnitude of 10 ml/kg at the
rate of 6.6 ml/kg/min actively stimulates the adrenal cortex of the dog. In
contrast, if the same ultimate volume of blood loss is achieved at a much-slower
rate of hemorrhage (i.e., 0.3 ml/kg/min), the pituitary-adrenal system does not
activate (Gann, 1969). That rapid hemorrhaging induces adrenocortical activity,
while slow rates of hemorrhaging do not, once again indicates that the rate of
stimulus change is one important parameter for the induction of pituitary-adrenal
activity. The fact that dexamethasone blocks the pituitary-adrenal response at a
high rate of hemorrhaging clearly indicates that neuroendocrine systems are
involved and that the effect was not mediated peripherally. Regardless of the
specific explanation that accounts for these results, their general significance
cannot be underestimated.
More recent studies on psychoendocrine responses have indicated further that
it may be possible to use adrenal activity as a measure of specific emotional
responses, rather than simply as a reflection of undifferentiated arousal
(Hennessy and Levine, 1979; Mason, 1975a,b). In addition, studies on
psychological stress bring out one point quite clearly; the great individual
differences typically observed in response to a given stressor can best be
explained in terms of cognitive mechanisms . For example, a sub, echo s perception
OCR for page 324
Page 8
of a stressor AS Z three_, or the coping responses that are available to the
subject, may well determine the physiological response. It may be insufficient,
therefore, to merely describe the stimulus operations involved in producing a
stressor. A psychobiological approach to understanding endocrine function cannot
escape making reference to cognitive processes.
In his new description of arousal theory, Berlyne (1960, 1967) provides a
framework for the description of the processes by which stimulators of arousal
(and thus, activators of the pituitary-adrenal response) operate. Novelty,
uncertainty, and conflict are considered primary determinants of arousal. These
have been labeled by Berlyne as collative factors, because in order to evaluate
them, it is necessary to compare similarities and differences between stimulus
elements (novelty), or between stimulus-evoked expectations (uncertainty). The
basic cognitive process involved in stimulation of the pituitary-adrenal system,
then, is one of comparison. To a large extent, the cognitive processes of
comparison can be best understood by adding the concept of uncertainty, although
there are some differences between uncertainty and novelty.
Uncertaintv seems to be a major factor underlying many psychological
responses. The processes involving neuroendocrine activation under conditions of
uncertainty are best explained by a model elaborated by Sokolov (1960) to account
for the general process of habituation. The pattern of habituation is familiar
to most people. A subject is presented with an unexpected stimulus and shows an
alerting reaction. Physiological components of this orienting reaction are well
known--general activation of the brain, decreased blood flow into the
extremities, changes in electrical resistance of the skin, and increases in both
adrenomedullary and cortical hormones. If the stimulus is frequently repeated,
OCR for page 325
Page 9
all of these reactions gradually dominion and eventually disappear, and the
subject is said to be habituated. It does appear, however, that physiological
responses may habituate more slowly than the observed behavioral reactions.
Sokolov's model, in essence, is based on a matching sys~ce~n in which new stimuli
or situations are compared with a representation in the central nervous system of
prior events. This matching process results in the development of expectancies
whereby the organism is either habituated or gives an alerting arousal reaction
(Pribram and Helges, 1969~. Thus, the habituated organism has an internal
representation of prior events with which to deal with the
environment--expectancies--and if the environment does not contain any new
contingencies, the habituated organism no longer responds with the physiological
responses related to the alerting reaction. Activation of the pituitary-adrenal
system by any change in expectancy can also be accounted for by invoking the
powerful explanatory capacity of the Sokolov model.
NOVELTY AND UNCERTAINTY
Exposure of an animal to novelty is one of the most potent experimental
conditions leading to an increase in pi~cuitary-adrenal activity. Novelty can be
classified as a collative variable, since the recognition of any stimulus
situation as being novel requires a comparison between present stimulus events
and those experienced in the past. Increases in pituitary-adrenal activity in
response to novelty have been demonstrated in humans as well as animals. For
example, increased adrenocortical activity, as evidenced by elevated levels of
circulating cortisol, are observed in individuals during their first exposure to
procedures involved in drawing blood at a blood bank. However, if they have had
OCR for page 452
Stress R education , O
Dohrenwend, B. S. (1978~. Social stress and community psychology. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 6, ~-15.
Dollard, J. & Horton, D. (1944~. Fear in battle. New York: ANT Press.
Dubanoski. R. & McIntosh, S. R. (1984~. Child abuse and neglect in military
and civilian families. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8, 55-67.
Duffy, E. (1932~. The relationship between muscle tension and quality of
performance. American Journal of Psychology, 44, 535-546.
Duffy, E. (1957~. The psychological significance of the concept of "arousal"
or "activation. " Psychological Review, 64, 26S-275.
Dyer, G. (1985~. War. New York: Crown Publishers.
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959~. The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the
organization of behavior . Psychological Review, 66, 183 - 201 .
Eisenhart, R. W . ( 1975 ~ . You can' Sac hack it little girl: A discussion of ache
covert psychological agenda of modern combat ~craining. Journal of Social
Issues, 31, 13- 23 .
Ellis, A. (1962~. Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Stuart.
Epstein, S. (1983~. Natural healing processes of the mind. In D.
Meichenbaum and M. Jaremko (Eds. ), Stress reduction and pre~ren~cion. New
York: Plenum Press.
Fairbank, J. & Keane, T. (1982~. Flooding for combat-sela~ced stress
disorders: Assessment of anxiety reduction across traumatic memories.
Behavior Therapy, 13, 499- 510 .
Figley, C. R. (1978~. Stress disorders among 11ie~cn~m veterans: Theory,
research, and treatment. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C., Rueger, D. B., & Carroll, E. M. (1984~.
Etiology of postraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of
promilitary, military, and combat exposure influences. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 79-87.
t
!
OCR for page 453
Stress Reduction 71
Frankenhauser, M. (1975). Experimental approaches to the study of
catecholamines and emotion. In L. Levi (Ed.), Emotions -- Their parameters
and measurement. New York: Raven Press.
Funkenstein, D., King, S., & Drolette, M. (1957). Mastery of stress.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gabriel, R. (1986). Soviet military psychiatry. New York: Greenwood Press.
Geron, E. & Dunkelman, N. (1982). The influence of war injury as a postwar
stress factor and of sport rehabilitation on the personality of paraplegic
war veterans. In N. Milgram (Ed.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 8.
Washington: Hemisphere.
Ginzberg, E. (1959a). Patterns of performance. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Ginzberg, E. (1959b). Breakdown and recovery.
University Press.
Glass, D. C. & Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban stress. New York: Academic
Press.
Hall, E. G. & Erffmeyer, E. S. (1983). The effect of vi-quo-motor behavioral
rehearsal with videotaped modeling on free-throw accuracy of
intercollegiate female basketball players. Journal of Sports Psychology,
5' 343-346.
Herrell, J. M. (1971). Use of systematic desensitization to eliminate
inappropriate anger. Proceedings of the 79th Annual Convention, APA, 431-
432.
Hibler, R. J. (1984). Battlefield stress: Management techniques. Military
Medicine, 149, 5-~.
.. _._. ~
Horowitz, M. J. & Soloman, G. F. (1975). A prediction of delayed stress
response syndromes in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Social Issues, 197S,
31, 67-80.
New York: Columbia
OCR for page 454
Stress Reduction ,2
Homer, S. O., Megtino, B. M., & Mobley, W. H. (1979~. An experimental
evaluation of the effects of a realistic preview on Marine recruit affect,
intentions and behavior (TR-9~. University of South Carolina, Center for
Management and Organizational Research.
Jacobson, E. (1938~. Progressive relaxation. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Janis, I. L. (1951~. Air war and emotional stress. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Janis, I. L. (1971~. Stress and frustration. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
and Jovanovich.
Janis, I. L. (1983~. Stress inoculation in health care. In D. Meichenbaum
and M. Jaremko (Eds.), Stress reduction and prevention. New York: Plenum
Press.
Kanfer, F. (1970~. Self-monitoring: Methodological limitations and clinical
applications. Journal o f Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 148-152.
Kardiner, A., & Spiegel, H. (1947~. War, stress, and neurotic illness. New
York: Paul B. Hoeber.
Deane, T. M., Scott, W. O., Chavoya, G. A., Lamparski, D. M., & Fairbank, J.
A. (1985~. Social support in Vietnam veterans with posetraumatic stress
disorder: A comparative analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology' 53, 95-102.
Kendall, P. C. (1982). Advances i ~
therapy. Volume 1. New York: Academic Press
Kendall, P. C. & Hollon, S. D. (1979). Coznitive-behavioral interventions.
n Toni pier - _t~ri ^~1 IS __
New York: Academic Press.
Kitchner, I. & Greenstein, R. (1985). Low dosage lithium carbonate in the
treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Brief communication. Military
Medicine 9 150' 378-381.
!
3
OCR for page 455
Stress Reduction /3
Kormos, H. (1978~. The nature of combat stress. In C. R. Figley (Ed.),
Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Krantz, D., & Manuck, S. (1984). Acute psychopsysiologic reactivity and risk
of cardiovascular disease: A review and methodologic critique.
Psychological Bulletin, 96, 435-464.
Kreuz, L., Rose, R., & Jennings, J. R. (1972). Suppression of plasma
testosterone levels and psychological stress. Archives of General
Psychiatry, 26, 479-482.
Lacey, J. I. (1967). Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions
of activation theory. In M. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.), Psychological
stress. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Lakein, A. (1973). How to get control of your time and Your life. New
York: Peter H. Wyden.
Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping.
York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. L. & Launier, R. (1978). Stress related transactions between
person and enviornment. In L. A. Pervin & M. Lewis (Eds.), Perspectives in
interactional psychology. New York: Plenum Press.
Levi, L. (1971). Society, stress, and disease: The psychosocial environment
and psychosomatic disease. London: Oxford University Press.
Malloy, P. F., Fairbank, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1983). Validation of a
multimethod assessment of posttraumatic stress disorders in Vietnam
veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, _, 488-494.
Marra, R. T. (1981). Stress, attention, and coping: Brief preventive
intervention during a military medical examination. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 42' 2068-B.
1984~. Stress, appraisal, and coping. New
OCR for page 456
Stress R education 74
Mason, J . W. ( 1975 ~ . Emotion as reflected in patterns of endocrine
integration. . In L. Levi (Ed. ), Emoting -- Their parameters and
measurement. New York: Raven Press.
McCabe, M. S . & Board, G. (1976) . Stress and mental disorders in basic
training. Military Medicine, 141, 686 - 688 .
~ .
Meichenbaum, D. (1977~. Cognitive-behavior modification. New York: Plenum
Press.
Meichenhaum, D. (1985~. Stress inoculation training. New York: Pergamon
Press .
Milgram, N. (1982~. Stress and anxiety. Vol. 8. Washington, D.C.:
Hemisphere Publishing Co
Mobley, U., Hand, H., Baker, R., & Meglino, B. (1979~. Conceptual and
empirical analysis of military recruit training attrition. Journal of
Applied Psychology, _, 10-18.
Noel, R. C. (1980~. The effect of visuo -motor behavioral rehearsal on tennis
performance. Journal of Sports Psychology, 2, 221-226. .
Notterman, J. M. & Trumbull, R. (1950~. Note on self-regulating systems and
stress. Behavioral Science, 4, 324-327.
Novaco, R. W. (1985). Anger and its therapeutic regulation. In M. Chesney &
R. Rosenman (Eds.), Anger and hostility in cardiovascular and behavioral
disorders . Washington, D. C.: Hemisphere Publishing.
Novaco, R. W., Cook, T. M. & Sarason, I. G. (1983~. Military recruit
training : An arena for stress coping skills. In D. Meichenbaum & M.
Jaremko (Eds.), Stress reduction and prevention. New York: Plenum Press.
Novaco, R. W. & Robinson, G. L. (1984~. Anger and aggression among military
personnel. In R. Kaplan, V. J. Konecni, & R. U. Novaco (Eds.), Aggression
in children and youth. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
OCR for page 457
Stress Reduction 7:
Novaco, R. W., & Sarson, I. G. (1986). Training unit environments,
attrition' and performance in Marine Corps recruit training. Manuscript
submitted for publication.
Novaco, R. W., Sarason, I. G., Robinson, G., & Cunningham, F. (1982).
Longitudinal analyses of stress and performance among Marine Corps drill
instructors . Washington, D. C.: Office of Naval Research.
Novaco, R. W., Sarason, I. G., Robinson, G., & Parry, C. (1983). Attributes
of Drill Instructor School graduates: Stress-related factors. Washington,
D.C.: Office of Naval Research.
Novaco, R. W. ~ Vaux, A. (1985). Human stress: A theoretical model for the
community-oriented investigator. In E. Susskind & D. Klein (Eds-.),
Community research. New York: Praeger.
Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press.
Pavlov, I. P. (1941). Lectures on conditional reflexes. Vol. 2:
Conditioned reflexes and psychiatry. New York: International Publishers.
Pearlin, L. I. & Schooler C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of
Health and Social Behavior 19 2-21.
,, _ .
Perlmutter, A. (1977). The military and politics in modern times: On
professional, praetorians, and revolutionary soldiers. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Peters, R. K., Benson, H., & Peters, J. M. (1977). Daily relaxation response
breaks in a working population: lI. Effects on blood pressure. American
Journal of Public Health 67 954-959.
, ,
Poe, R., Rose, R., & Mason, J. (1970~. Multiple determinants of 17-
hydroxycorticosteroid excretion in recruits during basic training.
Psychosomatic Medicine, _, 369-378.
OCR for page 458
Stress Reduction ,6
Quick, J . C . & Quick, J . D . ( 1984~ . Organizational stress and preventive
management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rachman . S . J . ( 1978 ~ . Fear and courage
San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Rahe, R., Biersner, R., Ryman, D., & Arthur, R. (1972~. Psychosocial
predictors of illness behavior and failure in stressful training. Journal
of Health and Social Behavior, _, 393 - 397 .
Rahe, R.9 Rubin9 R.' Arthur9 R., & Clark, B. (1968). Serum uric acid and
cholesterol variability. Journal of the American Medical Association, 206,
2875-2880.
Rose, R., Bourne, P., Poe, R., Mougey, E., Collins, D., & Mason, J. (1969).
Androgen responses to stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 3l, 418-436.
Roth, R. (1980~. Child abuse and neglect among the military. National
Technical Information Service, PB83-219097.
Rubin, R., Rahe, R . , Arthur , R ., & Clark, B. (1969~. Adrenal cortical
activity changes during underwater demolition training. Psychosomatic
Medicine 31 553-564.
. ,
Sandberg, B. & gliding, A. (1975~. Problems and symptoms in army basic
trainees with stress-induced hypertensive reactions. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research 20 51-59.
. _,
Sarason, I. G. (1975~. Anxiety and self-preoccupation. In. I. G. Sarason &
C. D. Spielberger (Eds. ), Stress and anxie~cy, Vol. 2. Washing~con:
Hemisphere .
Sarason, I . G ., Levine, H . M ., Basham, R. B ., & Sarason, B . R. ( 1983 ~ .
Assessing social support: The social support questionnaire. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 127-139.
Sarason, I. G., Novaco, R. 'I , Robinson, G., & Cook, T.
attrition and the training uni t environment.
Naval Research.
(1981~. Recruit
Washington, D.C.: Office of
OCR for page 459
Stress R education
Sarkesian> S · C . ( 1980) . Combat effectiveness: Cohesion, stress , and the
volunteer military Beverly Hills: Same.
Schachter, J. (1957). Pain, fear, and anger in hypertensives and
normotensives: A psychophysiological study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 29,
17-29.
Schneider, R. J. & Luscomb, R. L. (1984). Battle stress reaction and the
United States Away. Military Medicine, 149, 66-69.
Schneider, W. ~ Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human
information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Psychological Review, 84 9 1-66.
Seegert, C. R. (1984). Group stress management treatment and the
relationships between anxiety, coping styles, and ego defense mechanisms in
a military setting. Dissertation Abstracts International, 4S, 1595-B.
Selye, H. (1976~. The stress of life. New York: McOraw-Hill.
Shatan, C. F. (1978). Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans: The
emotional content of combat continues. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Stress
disorders among Vietnam veterans: Theory. research, and treatment. New
York: Brunner/Mazel.
Small, R. H. (1984). Practical training in the management of psychiatric
combat casual~cies . Military Medicine, 149, 276-279.
Spaulding, R. & Ford, C. (1972). The Pueblo incident: Psychological
reactions to the stresses of imprisonment and repatriation. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 49-58.
Steinberg, H. R. ~ Durell, J. (1968). A stressful social situation as a
precipitant of schizophrenic symptoms: An epidemiological study. British
Journal of PsYchiatrY' 114' 1097-1105.
OCR for page 460
S tress R educ ion , 3
Steiner, M. & Neumann, M. ( 1982~ . War neuroses and social support . In N.
Milgram (Ed. ), Stress and anxiety' sol. 8. Washington, D. C.: Hemisphere .
Stevens. R. J. (~979~. The effects of RET/ROT principles as an ins~crument
for stress management at a USAF security service base. Dissertation
Abstracts International, 41, 3892-A.
-
Stewart, G. T., Voors, A. W.9 Jenkins, C. D., Gutekunst, R. R., & Moldow, C.
F. (1969~. Determinants of sickness in Marine recruits. American Journal
of Epidemiology, 89, 254-263.
Stokols, D. (1979~. A congruence analysis of human stress. In I. Sarason &
C. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 6. Washington, D.C.:
Hemisphere Press.
Stokols, D. & Novaco, R. W. (1981~. Transportation and well-being. In I.
Alderman, J. Wohlwill, & P. Everett (Eds.), Transportation and behavior. New
York: Plenum Press.
Stouffer, S., Lumsdaine, A., Lumsdaine, M., Williams, R., Smith, M. B., Janis,
I., Star, S., & Cottrell, L. (1949~. The American soldier: Combat and
its afterma~ch. Princeton N.J. : Princeton University Press.
Stress-management plans abound but not all programs are run well. The Wall
Street Journal September 30 1982 p. 33.
. , ,
Stretch, R. H. (1985~. Pos~crsumatic stress disorder among U.S. Army Reserve
Vietnam and Vietnam-Era ve~cerans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychoic~r, S3, 935-936.
Stretch, R. H., Vail, J . D ., & Maloney, J . P . ~1985 ~ . Postraumatic stress
disorder among Army Nurse Corps Vie~cnam ve~cerans. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, _, 704- 708 .
Suinn, R. (1972~. Removing emotional obstacles to learning and performance
by visuomotor behavioral rehearsal . Behavior Therapy, 3, 308 - 310 .
1
)
OCR for page 461
S Mess R educ ion
Turk, D . (1978 ) . Cognitive behavioral techniques in the management of
pain. In J. P. Foreyt & D. P. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior
Cheap. New York: Plenum Press.
Ursin, H., Basde, E., & Levine, S . (1978) . Psychobiology of stress : A study
of coping men. New York: Academic Press.
Wallace, R. K. (1910~. The physiological effects of transcendental
meditation. Los Angeles: St ants International Meditation Society.
Wasileski, M., Callaghan-Chaffee, M., & Chaffee, R. B. (1982). Spousal
violence in military homes: An initial survey. Military Medicine, 147,
761 - 765 .
We inberg, R. S ., Seabourne, T . G
motor behavioral rehearsal,
Washington:
Wilkins, W. L.
& Jackson, A. ( 1981~ . Effects of vi;suo-
relaxation, and imagery on kara~ce
performance . Journal of Sports Psychology, 3 ~ 228 - 238 .
Weisman, G . ~ 1982 ~ . Wartime public feelings and their precursors: A case
presen~ca~cion. In N. Milgram (Ed. ), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 8.
Hemisphere .
( 1982~ . Psychophysiological correlates of stress asked human
performance. In E. Alluisi & E. FIeishman (Eds. ), Human performance and
producti~ri~cy : Stress and performance effectiveness . Hilisdale N. J .:
Erlbaum.
Wolf, S. & Wolff, H. G. ~1951~. A summary of experimental evidence relating
life stress to the pathogenesis of essential hypertension in man. In E. T.
Bell (Ed. ), Hypertension: A symposium. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press.
OCR for page 462
Influence Strategies
Dean G. Pruitt, Jennifer Crocker, and Deborah Hanes
State University of New York at Buffalo
