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S~S~ SPRY
We can follow our dreams to distant stars, living arm working in
Space for peaceful economic arm scientific gain. Tonight, I am
directing MESA to develop a permanently Banned Space Station arxI
to do it within a decade.
President Ronald Reagan, State of the Union Message,
January 5, 1984.
In response to this presidential mandate, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) is plan m ng to launch a nations space
station in the early 1990s. To implement this commitment, and in
concurrence with a congressional mandate, NASA is focusing serious
attention on the use of autcmation an] robotics An future space
systems.
There its a tendency, particularly in the public sector, to view the
emergence of new computer capabilities and automation and robotic
technologies as a basis for replacing humans in space and thereby
avoiding tragedies such as those of the Apollo 7 and the Challenger.
However, it is unlikely that artificial intelligence ccmparable to
human Intelligence will be available to replace humans *tiring the last
part of the twentieth Century and the e ply part of the bwen~y-first.
m erefore,-people and automated systems will work together An space for
the foreseeable future.
NA5A is plan m ng new research programs aimed at acquiring a better
under standing of how computers, automation, and robotics can be made to
work in partnership with people in complex. lona-duration scare system
missions. These prc grams will address important questions concern mg
the relationship between what are called intelligent systems and the
people who will use them as astronauts inside a space vehicle and in
extravehicular activities, as scientists an] technicians in space and
on the grcunS, and as controllers on the ground.
Space offers significant challenges for the exploration and
demonstration of humanrec==uter-rcbot cooperation.
. it, _ , _ ~ _ _ _, _ ,,
_ _ _ ~ _ _ _ Recognizing the
size, complexity, and importance of this challenge, the Aeronautics and
Space Technology Office approached the Committee on Human Factors for
assistance. The specific question posed was '~hat research is, or
should be, going on now that might produce new ~nologies that could,
or Should be, integrated into the space station after its initial
Operating c~paci~r has been est~hlished?" me committee responded to
NASA's question by proposing to assemble a group of eminent scientists
.
1
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2
Arms this issue and to present its vim deco the
community by mans of a symposium on human factors rearm new=
advance Space station design.
DEVECD~ OF LIE SYMPOSIUM
The Oc~mittee on Oman Factors initially for~d a small Staring Group
~ of six resorters representing a broad range of relevant
disciplines (i.e., human factors, artificial Intelligence, expert
systems, decision science, robotics and Presence, and social
science and space system design). The steering group was introduced to
the task at hand through briefings from various Nabs headquarters
offices, including the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology and
the Space Station Office. Based on the information gathered during
these briefings, the steering group then developed the following list
of symposium topics and questions for consideration by prospective
· System Prc~uctivity/People and Machines
How can human performance and productivity be def mea?
How can system productivity be measured and evaluated?
Expert Systems and Robotics and Their Use
What are the requirements for reliability?
How can people, expert systems, and robots form an effective
partnership?
Language and Displays for Human-Computer Communication
How much structure does a cc mputer language need?
What types of displays are most effective?
l~nr-~nc~ ones ~~r~r;~'v ~nntml
.
at are the relative merits of various telepresence
displays? (e.g., touch or sterecpsis)
What can be done to increase the precision of control for
remote manipulators?
· Computer-Aided Monitoring and Decision Mixing
What types of rout~r.e operations cowld be automated?
~ How will people use these types of aids?
· Social Factors
What factors affect group productivity and performance?
What are the potential effects of increased crew diversity
with respect to such variables as gender, professional
training, and interest differences?
Human Role in Space
How should system functions be allocated in manned space
systems?
Who or what instrumental ity should take ultimate
responsibility for system performance arxl safety,
or a c~uter?
a human
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3
The general framework for the sy~si~n was planned as follows.
Eadh topic area would constitute a different session. Eadh session
would consist of two formal preserltations of papers prepared especially
for ache sy ~ osimn and would be followed by a formal c ~ nentary on the
papers by a preassigned discussant and would conclude with an open
discussion. Members of the audience would be active participants and
would be selected with this in mind.
The steeping group identified and recruited three excerts in each
~ ~_~ ~ =~= ~ 4~ =~ —_A ~ Ale: Be_ ~ AA A: ~~,~—
=~1- o~c=. owe =~1= I'm ~ ~ Q ly~e~ -1~1~- The session on
system productivity was an exception, having one author and one
discussant. Before the symposium, all the prospective authors and
discussants were invited to visit the Lyndon Johnson Space Center for
briefings and discussions with key personnel involved in manned space
flight research and development. Speakers and advisors were present
from NASA headquarters, the Johnson Space Center, the Ames Research
Center, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Fo1 lowing the extensive overview of NASA research efforts aimed at
the space station effort provided by NASA personnel, symposium authors
and discussants began preparing materials for the symposium.
~ndividn~s involved in each session worked together using an iterative
peer review and revision approach in writing the papers and the formal
c~tary on there that was to be include In the symposium
p~i~s. Eadh Coup took responsibility for the completeness arm
t~hni~1 accuracy of the material representing its area of e~rti~.
Prior to the sy~simn, authors and discussants received a complete set
of papers and c ~ nentary for each of the sessions.
The symposium was held at the Nations ~ ademy of Sciences on
January 29-30, 1987. Following the symposium, authors were asked to
revise their papers and to suggest revisions to papers written by
others based on the information and insights gained during the
sy~os] ~-
lhe starring group did not consider its mandate to encompass the
task of developing specific research recc==endations for NASA. m e
symposium presentations an] commentary serve that purpose. However,
the closing remarks of the keynote speaker and the chairs which appear
at the end of these p q s, stand ~~ their personal interpretation
of what was said that was the most important.
S~S~ ABSTRACTS
This section summarizes the contents of each of the symposium papers
and provides the interested reaper with an overview of the symposium
program.
System Productivity: People and Machines
The concept
of productivity, while elusive, has been an important one ~ economics
and engineering psychology arm is frequently enc~ount~red in discussions
Activity in the Space Station (Raymorx] S. Nickerson)
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of the space program and of the space station in particular. Nickerson
begins with a discussion of what productivity means and how it has been
assessed in earth environments. Several variables that have been shown
to affect it are identified. Factors that are likely to have an impact
on productivity in space are discussed, with emphasis on a variety of
stressors that may be expecter to characterize the space station
environment. The paper ends with a set of recommendations for
Ah.
Expert Systems and Their Use
AI Systems in the Space Station (Thomas M. Mitchell) Among the
technologies that will help shape life in the space station, artificial
intelligence (AI) seems certa m to play a major role. The striking
complexity of the station, its life support systems, and the
manufacturing and scientific apparatus it will house ~ e that a
good share of its supervision, maintenance, and control be done by
cc mputer. At the same time, the noon for intelligent communication and
shared responsibility between such computer programs and space station
residents poses a serious challenge to present interface= between
people and machines. Hence, the potential and need for contributions
fern AI to the space station effort are great.
This paper suggests areas in which support for new AI research might
be expected to produce a significant impact on future space station
technology. The paper focuses on two areas of particular significance
to the space effort: (1) the use of knowledge-based systems for
monitoring and controlling the space station and (2) issue= related to
sharing and transferring responsibility between computers and space
station residents.
Expert Systems: Applications in Space (Bruce C. Buchanan) The
technology of artificial intelligence (AI), specifically expert
syst ~c, -is reviewed to examine what capabilities exist and what
research nook-= to be conducted to facilitate the integration of humans
and AI technology in future space systems. An expert system is defined
as a flexible, symbolic reasoning program that uses heuristic to
manipulate symbolic data ~ ord=' to generate plausible answers to
questions. Four goals are identified for expert systems: (1)
performance (at a standard comparable to the best specialists); (2)
reasoning (as opposed to straight "number crunching"; (3)
understandability (the ability to explain why an answer is plausible
and how it was generated); and (4) flexibility (the ability to de=1
with novel situations). Phonologic techniques for achieving these
goals are discussed, including modularity (keeping domain knowledge
separate from decision rules, and independent clusters of domain
knowledge separate from one another) and uniformity of language and
constructs (both internally between segments of the program, and
externally between the program and the intended users). The problems
of collecting, representing, storing, maintaining, and manipulating
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dc main knowledge are retie wed. Buchanan concludes that existing expert
system technology is adequate for some problems but can be improved to
use the very large knowledge bases required by a system as complex as
.the space station.
Language and Displays for Human-Comput~' Communication
Change in Human-Cc mputer Interfaces on the Space Station (Philip J.
Hayes) The planned longevity of the space station will require
mc~ularitY in its design to allow components to be chanced and undated
_ , _ _ _ _,— _ it, _
as independently of one another as possible.
_ ~ ~ 3.— —— — — —
This paper explores the
issue of Parity in the design of human-computer interfaces for the
space station. The need for mc~NIarity centers on the rapid rate of
expansion in the kinds and combinations of modalities (typing,
graphics, pointing, speech, etc.) available for human-co mputar
interaction, and on the technique= available to effect their
implementation and interaction. The paper assesses the appropriateness
of current and forthcoming modalities according to task, user, and
space station environment.
human-computer ~nterfa~-= inevitable for the space station is the
development of ~nt=~ligent interfaces. m e paper discusses methods of
achieving ~nt=1ligence in ~nterfa~-= and in what circumstances it is
desirable. m e question of how to achieve the n4-o~c~ry changes in
human-oompuOer ~nterfa~-= is considered, focusing on methods of
obtaining a clean separation between the interface and the underly Meg
space station system application. User interface management systems
and interaction interface development environments are also addressed.
m e paper concludes with a set of research recommendation_ cover mg
both research into new interface technology and methods for dealing
with the consequent need for change An interfaces.
A secondary factor that mixes chance in
.
. · .
Cognitive Factors in the Design and Development of Software in the
Space Station (Peter G. Polson) m e paper describes major problems in
the design of human-computer interfaces for systems on the space
station arm Box has Static application of Id arm
theoretic=] results and methodologies from captive psychology arm
cognitive science can lead to the develc~nt of interface= that reduce
training cost arm ~nc:e space station crew pra~tivi=. me paper
focuses an fair issues: (1) transfer of ever sJcilis; (2) comprehension
of complex visual displays; (3) hLman-oomputer problem solving; and (4)
management of the development of untie systems.
-
~ . . .
Four solutions to the
pro blame are proposed: (1) `:c. of information process Meg models of
tasks in the design process; (2) allocation of adequate resources to
user-~nterfa-= development; (3) use of user interface management
systems; and (4) use of existing expertise in NEST.
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6
Computer-Aide] Mom boring and Decision Making
Robustness and Transparency ~ Intelligent Systems (Randall Davis)
Building and operating a manned space station will give rise to
problems of enormous complexity in an environment that is both hostile
and unfamiliar. The complexity of the station and the novelty of the
environment preclude ache creation of an exhaustive list of contingency
pus. Unforeseen events will inevitably occur, requiring
rPal-time interpretation, diagnosis, arx] response.
The paper reviews the failure of a fuel cell during the second space
Shuttle mission In order to give an exanq?le of the kind of
unanticipated event that can occur and examines the varieties of
knowledge and engineering reasoning required to deal with such an
event. Davis considers what Bight be required to have a computer
assist in this task by giving it an understanding of "how something
works". Scme nonsolutions to the problem are discussed to demonstrate
why existing technology is insufficient, and several research themes
are then explored. The nature an] character of engineering models are
considered and it is suggested that their creation, selection, and
simplification are key issues in the sort of understanding that should
be created. Recalling the difficulties involve] in the capture of
Solar Max, the paper argues for the necessity of complete design
capture an] speculates about what it would take to create a design
capture system so effective that it would be was almost unthinkable to
create or modify a design without it. The paper also considers what
can be done at the design stage to create models that are easier to use
and more effective; that is, how to design in such a fashion that
interpretation, diagnosis, and ~ onse are made less complex
protests.
Decision MEXir<--i~ded and Unaided (Baruch Fischhoff) There are few
aspects of space station design and operation that do not involve some
decision making, whether it be choosing critical pieces of equipment,
choosing to trust automated systems, choosing where to look first for
the source of an apparent anomaly, or choosing the range of conditions
for pre-m~ssion testing. Showing how people intuitively make such
decisions praises a basis for de~mini~ where they need help, in the
form of autcmat=~ decision aids, specialized training, or designs that
are robust in the face of fallible decision making. Although it has
much in common with decision making in other contexts, space station
decision making presents some special demands. These include: (1) the
need to create a shared model of the space station and its support
systems, which will coordinate the widely distributed decision makers
capable of affecting its performance; (2) the need to make decisions
with imperfect systems, whose current status and future behavior are
~ncc~mplet~ly understood; (3) the need to make novel decisions,
r~por~ir~ to nonrwLine situations. The human factors ~e3~ needs
in each of these areas are identified, using as a point of departure
the li~a~cure of behavior decision theory. Meeting these Canards
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7
will require the sort of programmatic research effort that has
distinguished NOVA in the past.
Telepresence and Supervisory Control
Teleoperation, Telepresence, and Telerobotics (Thomas B. Sheridan) The
problems of integrating humans and automated or robotic systems in
space environments are discussed, begins ng with brief definitions of
key terms like Operation, telepresen~=, telerobotics, and
supervisory control. The early development of t~leoperators is
s~mnarized, freon tile cable m~haru~1 earth-~vir~ arxt constellation
equipment available prior to 1945, to the industrial riots, equipped
with pr;,n;ti~re cater vision, wrist force sensing, arxt "tech
percent" condom boxes that were ~ use by the early 1980s. The
current shady= of ~celepperator devel~nt is evaluated, arm
ltifingered manipulators, touch sensing, and depth perception are
cited as areas in which promising r~r~ is Burring. A need is
identified for a formal theory of manipulation to guide the develc~nt
of h~narl-madhine iced sensory-motor Control systems. Research
needs are identified in Be following areas:
~ . .. ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ . .. .
(1) telesensing
(LnClUOlng resolved force, Ouch, ~Inestnesls' p~-~riooeption, and
proximity); (2) Actuating (including mLlti-degree-o=-freedom end
offer twc-arm interaction, and multiperson cooperative control of
t~leoperators); (3) human-oomputer interaction in a computer-aided
environment (including simulation, plan m ng/decision-aiding, and
cc=~an~/oommunication/control). It is concluded that research in the
ares discussed is critical for the development of
t~leoFerator/telerobotic capabilities, which will permit the best
relative use of both human and machine resource in future space
systems.
Telerobakics for the Evolving Space Station (Lawrence Stark) In this
paper, telerobotics ~ used to mean remote control of robots by a human
operator using supervisory and some direct control. by robot is meant
a manipulator/mcbili~r device with visual or o~thPr senses. This is an
important area for the evolving NASA space station.
. ~ . . . . . . .
The paper suggests
that triplicate or he way plarmir~ behold be employed. It is
important to carry out r~r~ to accomplish tasks: (1) with people
alone, if Edible, such as In eXera-v~hi~tlar activities; (2) with
autonc~s robots (AR); and (3) wiff~=lercibotics. py~arir~gar~
contrasting the r ~ r ~ necessary to carry out these three approaches,
present problems may be clarified.
m e paper describes an experimental telercbotics simulation suitable
for studying human operator performance. Simple manipulator
pick-an5-place and tracking tasks allowed quantitative comparison of a
number of calligraphic display view m g conditions. The Ames-R='keley
enhanced perspective display was utilized in conjunction with an
experimental helmet mounted display system. A number of control modes
could be compared in this Robotics simulation, including
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8
displa~nt, rate, and a~leratory control using position and force
joysticks. ~nicati~ delay was induced to study its effect on
performance .
The paper suggests that the in In and support for teler~botics
reseal t~l~y Uphold ~ f~ NINA and fen private iffy and
that such r~ cadd also be corded, with short farm NASA,
university laboratories.
Social Factors In ~uctivi~ and Performance
Social Stress, ~*~3iated Fornication System, arm dean
uctivi~ In Soace Stations (Karen S. Cook) the Darer has two
distinct but related foci. First, it considers the issue of stress and
reviews the social psychological literature relater str~#;s to
individual and Group furmbionir~. Prey attention is focused on the
link between stress and group pr reactivity. 1 ~ parer identifies
promising lines of research in the social sciences and poses issues
that might be of particular interest to NOVA for future research.
Second, the paper considers a broad class of problems that arise frog
the fact that life aloft requires, almost exclusively, mediated
communication systems. m is section of the paper addresses the
psychological and social aspects of mediated communication (primarily,
computer-mediated communication systems) and its impact on individual
anS group performance or productivity. The concluding section of the
paper proposes a critical set of redry nods that NASA might take
Rations for pr~tic ~r=. These camplement r~r~
currently being supports }: y Ned' s dean Factors Division. Isis
is placed on what are tern critical dial contingencies, narrowly,
these psychological and Biological ads of life as ~isionect on
space stations that, if not managed well organizationally, card create
major problems for crew productivity and viability ~ space.
Control, Conflict, and Crisis Management in the Space Station's Social
System [H. Andrew Michener) The paper discusses two social systems:
(1) the space station social system in the year 1993 and (2) the space
station social system as it may have evolved by the your 2000. Because
neither of these social systems exists today, they cannot be
investigated by empirical techniques; thus, the discussion in this
paper is necec=~'ily theoretical and conjecturale It is proposed that
the y ~ r 2000 social system, ~ contrast with the 1993 system, will be
larger in size and more differentiated in composition, will make
greater ,,== of on-board computerization (artificial intelligence), and
will pursue different goals and subgoals. Thick changes will, in turn,
create a year 2000 social system that is more complex, more
differentiated into subgroups, and more decentralized with regard to
decision making than the year 1993 system. It is suggested that
several consequences will follow from increases In complexity,
differentiation, and decentralization. Specifically, it is likely
that: (l) the supervisory-control system on board the space station
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9
will shift freon a hit form to a Metrical form; (2) the
potential for, arxi severity of, Personal conflict will be greater;
at (3) the logistics of r~rxling k, crises will be different. Eadh
of these points is di ~ used In detail. The paper closes with
suggestions regarding research that might usefully be conducted today
in anticipation of these changes.
m e Human Role An Space Systems
The Role= of Humans and Machines in Space {David L. Akin) The
fundamental requirements for any sPlf-conta~ned device performing a
useful function in space are identified as follows: (1) sensation (the
ability to detect objects); (2) computation (the Ability to formulate a
plan of action); (3) manipulation (the ability to interact with, and to
alter, the environment); (4) locc motion (the ability to maneuver within
~ he Or;_ ~ · fed cam__— If_<. ~_1 ;~ ~~ ~ ~
~_1~ GllV''V~-J ~ \-J IVY W' t WV C~~J · ~ e ~ t a ~
present roles of human and mechanical systems in fulfilling these
functions in space activities are reviewed, with emphasis on the
special contributions of people to the performance of space systems.
The need to take an earthlike environment into space in order to
accommodate humans is also dis~==P~, including the constraints of
atmosphere, consumables, volume, work cycles, and gravity. It is
concluded that there will continue to be necessary and sufficient roles
for both humans and machines in space systems for the forpc==~hle
future. Research needs are identified in the following areas: (1)
development of a Meaningful data base on human and machine capabilities
and limitations in space envircrments; (2) identification of
appropriate roles for humans and machines in space systems; (3)
development of appropriate metrics of human and machine performance;
and (4) an a~-=sment of anthrcpocentrism (the tendency to design
autonomous machines based on a human model).
Sharing Cognitive Tasks Between people and computers ~ Space Systems
(William H. Starbuck) m e differences between people and computers are
persistent and profound. Although computers' capabilities have been
develc ping rapidly, computer simulation of human thought has had little
success. However, the differences between people and computers suggest
that oombinations of the two can achieve results beyond the
capabilities of each alone. For that reason, N~;A Should decree
rash to i~prwing the interactions arm synergies between pe - le arm
of.
Nearly all the r~r~ an h~n~er interaction has focus on
pence ho lack thorough training arxt who had little experience with
~ s. Since rest of these findings may not extrapolate to He
well-trained and experience operators of space systems, there is need
for studies of such users. Five research topics seem especially
interesting and important: (~) fostering trust between people and
expert systems; (2) creating useful workloads; (3) anticipating human
errors; (4) developing effective interface languages; and (5) using
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ni~1 interface metaphors. Inherent in these topics is an
implication bat Nab dhalld develop? a user interface management system
that will recognize the needs of diff~nt users, allay ctiff~nt users
express Choir personal prefererx:es, are prod: users'
individuality. age paper ccrx:ludes that to 3~nprc~re the quality of
designs arxt to improve users' at of designs, e~perien~
astronauts and controllers ~ participate in He Aligning of
~n~rfaces and systems.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
artificial intelligence
