Education for Tomorrow's Jobs (1983)

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APPENDIX A 91 Appendix A Selected Tables on Youth Employment and Unemployment The following tables are drawn from “A Descriptive Analysis of Employed and Unemployed Youth,” written for the committee by Michael E. Borus. The paper will appear in modified form in a book on youth employment problems to be published by W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. These tables were created from data in the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth Labor Market Experience. The National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth Labor Market Experience are conducted annually with over 12,000 young people. When weighted, as in the following tables, they represent the national population born in the years 1957 through 1964 (for further details on the NLS, see the National Longitudinal Surveys Handbook published by the Center for Human Resource Research, Ohio State University, 1982). Special analyses were made for this report using the spring 1981 survey wave. These data are used to describe the characteristics of employed and unemployed young people as of that time. Most of the analyses are limited to those who were ages 16–21 at the time of that interview. Since the interviews were conducted in spring 1981, some born in 1965 had their 16th birthday prior to the interview and are excluded from the NLS. As a result, the data presented here underrepresent 16-year-olds, including only those whose birthdays fell after the spring. The approximately 800,000 youngest 16- year-olds in the population are not represented in the sample. This biases slightly the employment-to-population ratios (upward) and the unemployment rates (downward). 

APPENDIX A 92 Some questions on discrimination and other perceived barriers to employment were asked of all young people in 1979 and were not repeated. For these variables, the data presented include all those ages 16–22 as of spring 1979. It is unlikely that there have been substantial changes in these perceptions between 1979 and the present. 

APPENDIX A 93 TABLE A-2 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Race, Spring 1981 Black Hispanic White Total Females Employed 35 47 57 53 (582) (341) (5,296) (6,218) Unemployed 22 12 11 12 (364) (90) (1,011) (1,466) Out of labor 43 41 32 34 force (715) (298) (3,018) (4,030) Unemployment rate 38 21 16 19 Males Employed 45 57 61 58 (714) (422) (5,601) (6,736) Unemployed 24 20 14 16 (383) (151) (1,315) (1,849) Out of labor 31 23 25 26 force (495) (168) (2,310) (2,973) Unemployment rate 35 26 23 22 Total Employed 40 52 59 56 (1,296) (762) (10,896) (12,954) Unemployed 23 16 12 14 (747) (242) (2,326) (3,315) Out of labor 37 32 29 30 Force (1,209) (466) (5,328) (7,002) Unemployment rate 37 24 18 20 NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 94 TABLE A-3 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Enrollment Status, Spring 1981 Enrollment Status as of 1981 Interview High- Enrolled Enrolled High Total School in High in School Dropout School College Graduate, Not Enrolled Females Employed 33 43 52 72 53 (522) (1,615) (1,295) (2,781) (6,218) Unemployed 20 15 6 12 12 (309) (555) (153) (448) (1,466) Out of labor 47 42 42 17 34 force (730) (1,583) (1,064) (646) (4,030) Unemployment 37 26 11 14 19 rate Males Employed 60 45 52 79 58 (1,082) (1,871) (1,232) (2,551) (6,736) Unemployed 25 18 6 15 16 (447) (767) (150) (479) (1,849) Out of labor 15 36 41 6 26 force (269) (1,518) (972) (212) (2,973) Unemployment 29 29 11 16 22 rate Total Employed 48 44 52 75 56 (1,603) (3,486) (2,527) (5,332) (12,954) Unemployed 22 17 6 13 14 (756) (1,322) (303) (928) (3,315) Out of labor 30 39 42 12 30 force (1,000) (3,101) (2,037) (859) (7,002) Unemployment 32 27 11 15 20 rate NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. School enrollment status was not available for 17,500 young people. 

APPENDIX A 95 

APPENDIX A 96 TABLE A-5 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Marital Status, Spring 1981 Marital Status Never Married, Other Not Total Married Spouse Available Present Females Employed 54 48 53 43 53 (5,104) (902) (151) (61) (6,218) Unemployed 12 12 19 19 12 (1,165) (218) (55) (27) (1,466) Out of labor 33 41 28 38 34 force (3,126) (769) (81) (53) (4,030) Unemployment 19 19 27 31 19 rate Males Employed 56 85 87 65 58 (5,868) (662) (87) (118) (6,736) Unemployed 16 12 10 18 16 (1,713) (94) (10) (32) (1,849) Out of labor 28 3 3 17 26 force (2,912) (25) (3) (32) (2,973) Unemployment 23 12 10 21 22 rate Total Employed 55 59 62 55 56 (10,972) (1,564) (238) (179) (12,949) Unemployed 14 12 17 18 14 (2,878) (312) (64) (60) (3,314) Out of labor 30 30 22 26 30 force (6,039) (794) (94) (85) (7,002) Unemployment 29 17 21 25 20 rate NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. Information on marital status was not available for 323,700 young people. 

APPENDIX A 97 TABLE A-6 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Presence of Respondent's Children in the Household, Spring 1981 Children in Household Children Not in Total Household Females Employed 33 57 53 (564) (5,654) (6,218) Unemployed 15 12 12 (258) (1,202) (1,466) Out of labor 52 31 34 force (902) (3,126) (4,030) Unemployment rate 31 18 19 Males Employed 76 58 58 (342) (6,394) (6,736) Unemployed 17 16 16 (76) (1,773) (1,849) Out of labor 8 26 26 force (34) (2,939) (2,973) Unemployment rate 18 22 22 Total Employed 42 57 56 (905) (12,049) (12,949) Unemployed 15 14 14 (334) (2,976) (3,314) Out of labor 43 29 30 force (936) (6,065) (7,002) Unemployment rate 27 20 20 NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. Information on children in the household was not available for 6,900 young people. 

APPENDIX A 98 TABLE A-7 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Living Arrangements at Time of 1981 Interview Living Away From Living in Total with Household in Own Parents College or Household Military Females Employed 54 39 54 53 (4,007) (398) (1,813) (6,218) Unemployed 14 3 11 12 (1,071) (34) (360) (1,466) Out of labor 31 57 35 34 force (2,292) (580) (1,158) (4,030) Unemployment rate 21 8 17 19 Males Employed 57 34 77 58 (4,888) (365) (1,484) (6,736) Unemployed 18 7 12 16 (1,556) (70) (222) (1,849) Out of labor 25 59 12 26 force (2,210) (630) (223) (2,973) Unemployment rate 24 16 13 22 Total Employed 56 37 63 56 (8,891) (763) (3,296) (12,949) Unemployed 16 5 11 14 (2,628) (104) (583) (3,314) Out of labor 28 58 26 30 force (4,412) (1,210) (1,381) (7,002) Unemployment rate 23 12 15 20 NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 99 TABLE A-8 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Region of Residence, Spring 1981 Northeast North Central South West Total Females Employed 56 56 46 59 53 (1,271) (1,966) (1,871) (1,109) (6,218) Unemployed 14 11 13 13 12 (312) (391) (515) (248) (1,466) Out of labor 31 33 41 28 34 force (709) (1,140) (1,648) (531) (4,030) Unemployment rate 20 17 22 18 19 Males Employed 62 56 55 65 58 (1,453) (2,022) (2,025) (1,234) (6,736) Unemployed 12 21 14 14 16 (287) (751) (535) (276) (1,849) Out of labor 26 23 30 20 26 force (618) (839) (1,123) (386) (2,973) Unemployment rate 16 27 21 18 22 Total Employed 59 56 50 62 56 (2,724) (3,988) (3,896) (2,343) (12,949) Unemployed 13 16 14 14 14 (599) (1,142) (1,050) (523) (3,314) Out of labor 28 28 36 24 30 force (1,327) (1,980) (2,770) (917) (7,002) Unemployment rate 18 22 21 18 20 NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. Information on region of residence was not available for 12,600 young people. 

APPENDIX A 100 TABLE A-9 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Residence in Rural or Urban Area, Spring 1981 Rural Urban Total Females Employed 48 54 53 (1,252) (4,956) (6,218) Unemployed 11 13 12 (281) (1,185) (1,466) Out of labor 41 32 34 force (1,072) (2,956) (4,030) Unemployment rate 18 19 19 Males Employed 54 60 58 (1,411) (5,320) (6,736) Unemployed 15 16 16 (389) (1,460) (1,849) Out of labor 31 24 26 force (798) (2,155) (2,973) Unemployment rate 22 22 22 Total Employed 51 57 56 (2,663) (10,271) (12,949) Unemployed 13 15 14 (670) (2,644) (3,314) Out of labor 36 28 30 force (1,870) (5,122) (7,002) Unemployment rate 20 20 20 NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. Information on area of residence was not available for 25,100 young people. 

APPENDIX A 101 TABLE A-10 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Residence in the Central City of a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA), Spring 1981 Not in In In In SMSA, Total SMSA SMSA, Central Residence Not in City of in Central Central SMSA City City Unknown Females Employed 48 57 47 56 53 (1,429) (2,263) (1,005) (1,436) (6,218) Unemployed 12 12 15 13 12 (364) (466) (310) (327) (1,466) Out of labor 40 31 38 32 34 force (1,168) (1,212) (804) (825) (4,030) Unemployment 20 17 24 19 19 rate Males Employed 56 61 56 59 58 (1,756) (2,301) (1,182) (1,455) (6,736) Unemployed 16 15 17 18 16 (490) (550) (365) (444) (1,849) Out of labor 28 24 27 23 26 force (894) (909) (574) (576) (2,973) Unemployment 22 19 24 23 22 rate Total Employed 52 59 52 57 56 (3,186) (4,564) (2,187) (2,891) (12,949) Unemployed 14 13 16 15 14 (853) (1,016) (675) (770) (3,314) Out of labor 34 27 32 28 30 force (2,062) (2,121) (1,378) (1,402) (7,002) Unemployment 21 18 24 21 20 rate NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. Information on residence location in an SMSA was not available for 165,800 young people. 

APPENDIX A 102 TABLE A-11 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex, Employment Status, and Local Unemployment Rate in County of Residence, Spring 1981 Unemployment Rate 3.0– 6.0– 9.0– 12.0– Unknown Total 5.9% 8.9% 11.9% 14.9% Females Employed 57 53 42 51 40 53 (2,325) (2,971) (455) (384) (82) (6,218) Unemployed 12 12 13 18 22 12 (490) (656) (142) (133) (45) (1,466) Out of labor 31 35 45 32 37 34 force (1,287) (1,939) (490) (240) (74) (4,030) Unemployment 17 18 24 26 35 19 rate Males Employed 61 57 51 62 64 58 (2,397) (3,136) (502) (529) (172) (6,736) Unemployed 14 16 22 21 22 16 (537) (857) (219) (177) (58) (1,849) Out of labor 26 28 27 17 14 26 force (1,019) (1,511) (263) (141) (38) (2,973) Unemployment 18 21 30 25 25 22 rate Total Employed 59 55 46 57 54 56 (4,723) (6,107) (958) (913) (253) (12,949) Unemployed 13 14 17 19 22 14 (1,026) (1,514) (361) (310) (103) (3,314) Out of labor 29 31 36 24 24 30 force (2,306) (3,450) (753) (381) (112) (7,002) Unemployment 18 20 27 25 29 20 rate NOTE: Those age 16 born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 103 TABLE A-12 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Young People Ages 16-21, by Sex and Reasons for Looking for Work, Spring 1981 Reason Looking for Work Females Males Total Need money 50 48 49 (737) (879) (1,616) Lost job 8 12 11 (125) (228) (353) Quit job 10 8 9 (151) (151) (302) Family expenses 5 3 4 (71) (50) (121) Support self 3 3 3 (40) (56) (96) Left school 2 4 3 (32) (69) (100) Enjoy working 5 2 3 (7) (29) (96) Other 11 11 11 (168) (206) (374) No reason given 5 10 8 (76) (180) (256) Total 100 100 100 (1,466) (1,849) (3,315) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 104 TABLE A-13 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Method of Job Search, Spring 1981 Method of Job Search Females Males Total Checked directly with employer 58 58 58 Looked in newspaper 38 26 31 Placed or answered ads 16 8 11 Checked with state employment agency 15 17 16 Used school employment service 6 5 6 Checked with private employment agency 4 3 4 Checked with friends or relatives 14 18 16 Other method 10 9 10 NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. 

APPENDIX A 105 TABLE A-14 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Occupation Sought, Spring 1981 Occupation Sought Females Males Total Professional, technical, and kindred 4 3 3 (52) (55) (107) Managers and administrators 0 1 1 (2) (20) (22) Sales workers 12 4 8 (74) (77) (251) Clerical and kindred 28 5 15 (415) (85) (500) Craftsmen and kindred 1 12 7 (20) (215) (235) Operatives, except transport 2 6 5 (34) (117) (151) Transport equipment operatives 0 3 2 (5) (51) (56) Laborers, except farm 2 14 9 (30) (255) (285) Farmers and farm managers 0 0 0 (0) (0) (0) Farm laborers and foremen 0 1 1 (1) (18) (19) Service workers, except private 20 12 16 (291) (225) (516) Private household workers 3 0 1 (47) (0) (47) Any kind of job 27 40 34 (396) (731) (1,127) Total 100 100 100 (1,466) (1,849) (3,315) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 106 TABLE A-15 Percentage Distribution of Unemployed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Minimum Hourly Wage Necessary to Induce them to Accept a Job for Which They Were Looking, Spring 1981 Reservation Wage Females Males Total Less than $2.50 2 1 2 (32) (24) (57) $2.50–$2.99 1 2 1 (17) (28) (44) $3.00–$3.24 11 8 9 (160) (148) (309) $3.25–$3.34 8 7 7 (118) (123) (241) $3.35 (federal minimum wage) 38 33 36 (561) (616) (1,176) $3.36–$3.49 4 2 3 (58) (40) (98) $3.50–$3.99 14 12 12 (200) (212) (412) $4.00–$4.49 8 13 11 (110) (241) (350) $4.50–$4.99 2 3 2 (27) (58) (84) $5.00–$5.49 3 6 5 (50) (117) (166) $5.50 or more 3 7 5 (42) (127) (169) Data not available 6 6 6 (91) (116) (207) Total 100 100 100 (1,466) (1,849) (3,315) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 107 TABLE A-16 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Occupation, Spring 1981 Occupation Females Males Total Professional, technical, and kindred 4 4 4 (257) (299) (556) Managers and administrators 2 3 2 (140) (184) (324) Sales workers 10 7 8 (598) (488) (1,086) Clerical and kindred 37 9 23 (2,306) (632) (2,938) Craftsmen and kindred 2 14 8 (110) (971) (1,081) Operatives, except transport 6 13 10 (372) (885) (1,257) Transport equipment operatives 0 5 3 (21) (314) (336) Laborers, except farm 2 18 10 (100) (1,223) (1,323) Farmers and farm laborers 0 3 2 (34) (229) (263) Service workers except private household 30 22 26 (1,883) (1,493) (3,376) Private household workers 6 0 3 (386) (13) (399) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 108 TABLE A-17 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Industry, Spring 1981 Industry Females Males Total Agriculture, forestry and fisheries 1 5 3 (66) (315) (380) Mining 0 2 1 (9) (101) (110) Construction 0 8 4 (18) (559) (577) Manufacturing, durable goods 5 11 8 (289) (725) (1,014) Manufacturing, nondurable goods 6 8 7 (389) (530) (912) Transportation, communications, and other 2 3 2 public utilities (118) (182) (300) Wholesale trade 2 4 3 (118) (234) (352) Retail trade 38 34 36 (2,368) (2,318) (4,686) Finance, insurance, and real estate 8 2 5 (494) (127) (621) Business and repair services 2 8 5 (130) (513) (644) Personal services 10 3 6 (600) (194) (794) Entertainment and recreation services 2 3 2 (109) (174) (283) Professional and related services 22 10 16 (1,362) (641) (2,004) Public administration 2 2 2 (150) (107) (256) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 109 TABLE A-18 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Hours Worked, Spring 1981 Hours Usually Worked per Week Females Males Total 0–19 31 24 28 (1,934) (1,639) (3,573) 20–34 25 25 25 (1,553) (1,689) (3,242) 35–40 38 34 36 (2,370) (2,259) (4,629) 40 or more 5 16 11 (328) (1,095) (1,423) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. TABLE A-19 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Shifts Worked, Spring 1981 Shifts Usually Worked Females Males Total Day 50 47 49 (3,126) (3,165) (6,291) Evening 15 16 16 (959) (1,094) (2,054) Night 6 8 7 (352) (536) (888) Split 3 4 3 (174) (234) (408) Variable hours 25 25 25 (1,588) (1,686) (3,274) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 110 TABLE A-20 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Hourly Wage, Spring 1981 Hourly Wage Females Males Total Less than $2.50 11 5 8 (676) (335) (1,011) $2.50–$2.99 5 5 5 (334) (323) (657) $3.00–$3.24 6 6 6 (402) (410) (813) $3.25–$3.34 4 4 4 (231) (252) (483) $3.35 (federal minimum wage) 13 10 11 (820) (662) (1,482) $3.36–$3.49 6 4 5 (368) (255) (623) $3.50–$3.99 17 15 16 (1,037) (1,021) (2,058) $4.00–$4.49 12 12 12 (771) (802) (1,573) $5.00–$5.49 6 8 7 (374) (510) (884) $5.50 or more 22 15 19 (1,488) (926) (2,414) Data not available 4 4 4 (274) (241) (515) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 111 TABLE A-21 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and General Education Required by Occupation, Spring 1981 General Education Required Females Males Total Up to 8 years 17 38 28 (1,074) (2,526) (3,600) 9–11 years 59 44 51 (3,682) (2,968) (6,650) 12 years 16 12 14 (1,021) (779) (1,800) Over 12 years 5 7 6 (331) (458) (790) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. TABLE A-22 Percentage Distribution of Employed Young People Ages 16–21, by Sex and Specific Vocational Preparation Required by Occupation, Spring 1981 Vocational Preparation Required Females Males Total Short demonstration 49 44 46 (3,037) (2,974) (6,012) Up to and including 30 days 21 22 22 (1,327) (1,465) (2,792) 31 days, up to and including 3 months 22 16 19 (1,349) (1,057) (2,406) 3 months, up to and including 6 months 4 13 8 (235) (848) (1,084) 6 months to 1 year 2 2 2 (116) (170) (286) 1 to 2 years 1 2 1 (73) (112) (185) More than 2 years 1 2 1 (71) (105) (175) Total 100 100 100 (6,218) (6,736) (12,954) NOTE: Persons 16 years of age born in 1965 (i.e., those having their birthday between January 1, 1981, and the interview date) are not included. This reduces the number of 16-year-olds by approximately 21 percent. Numbers in parentheses represent thousands. 

APPENDIX A 112 TABLE A-23 Percentage Distribution of Young People Ages 16–22 Indicating That Certain Problems Had Caused Them Difficulty in Getting a Good Job, by Sex and Race, Spring 1979 Females Males Problem Black Hispanic White Black Hispanic White Total Age 46 44 47 47 47 42 45 discrimination Sex 17 13 13 7 5 4 9 discrimination Race or 22 16 3 21 20 4 7 nationality discrimination Lack of 37 37 30 43 35 25 30 transportation Lack of 13 16 17 11 12 11 14 experience Lack of 7 12 6 6 7 5 6 education Problem with 4 18 2 5 18 2 3 English SOURCE: David Shapiro, 1981, “Perceptions of Discrimination and Other Barriers to Employment,” p. 482 in Michael E. Borus, ed., Pathways to the Future. Columbus: Center for Human Resource Research.