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The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986)

Chapter: References

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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. The Earth's Electrical Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/898.
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Page 229
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. The Earth's Electrical Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/898.
×
Page 230
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. The Earth's Electrical Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/898.
×
Page 231

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THE GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 229 key experiments. The technology and models are currently available to make progress in resolving the fundamental problem of global atmospheric electricity (Dolezalek, 1972). References Anderson, F. J., and G. D. Freier (1969). Interactions of the thunderstorm with a conducting atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 74 , 5390-5396 . Anderson, R. V. (1977). Atmospheric electricity in the real world (useful applications of observations which are perturbed by local effects), in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Holezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 87-99 . Atkinson, W., S. Sundquist, and U. Fakleson (1971). The electric field existing at stratospheric elevations as determined by tropospheric and ionospheric boundary conditions , Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 , 46-56 . Blanchard, D. C. (1963). Electrification of the atmosphere by particles from bubbles in the sea, Prog. Oceanog. 1 , 71 . Boeck, W. L. (1976). Meteorological consequences of atmospheric krypton-85, Science 193 , 195-198 . Bragin, Yu. A., A. A. Tyutin, A. A. Kocheev, and A. A. Tyutin (1974). Direct measurement of the atmospheric vertical electric field intensity up to 80 km, Cosmic Res. 12 , 279-282 . Brooks, C. E. P. (1925). The distribution of thunderstorms over the globe, Geophys. Mem. 24 , Air Ministry, Meteorological Office, London, pp. 147-164 . Chiu, Y. T. (1974). Self-consistent electrostatic field mapping in the high-latitude ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 79 , 2790-2802 . Cobb, W. E. (1968). The atmospheric electric climate at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, J. Atmos. Sci. 25 , 470-480 . Cobb, W. E. (1978). Balloon measurements of the air-earth current density at the south pole before and after a solar flare , in preprint volume, Conference on Cloud Physics and Atmospheric Electricity , July 31-August 4, Issaquah, Washington, American Meteorological Society, Boston, Mass. Cobb, W. E., B. B. Phillips, and P. A. Allee (1967). Note on mountain-top measurements of atmospheric electricity in northern United States, Mon. Weather Rev. 95 , 912-916 . Crichlow, W. Q., R. C. Favis, R. T. Disney, and M. W. Clark (1971). Hourly probability of world-wide thunderstorm occurrence, Res. Rep. 12 , Office of Telecommun. Int. Telecommun. Serv., Boulder, Colo., April. D'Angelo, N., I. B. Iversen, and M. M. Madsen (1982). Influence of the dawn-dusk potential drop across the polar cap on the high-latitude atmospheric vertical current, Geophys. Res. Lett. 9 , 773-776 . Davis, M. H., M. Brook, H. Christian, B. G. Heikes, R. E. Orville, C. G. Park, R. G. Roble, and B. Vonnegut (1983). Some scientific objectives of a satelliteborne lightning mapper, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 64 , 114-119 . Dejnakarintra, M., and C. G. Park (1974). Lightning-induced electric fields in the ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 79 , 1903-1910 . Dolezalek, H. (1971). Introductory remarks on the classical picture of atmospheric electricity, Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 , 9-12 . Dolezalek, H. (1972). Discussion of the fundamental problem of atmospheric electricity, Pure Appl. Geophys. 100 , 8-42 . Forbush, S. E. (1966). Time variations of cosmic rays, Handbuch der Physik, Geophysik III , J. Bartels, ed., Springer-Verlag, New York. Freier, G. D. ( 1979 ). Time dependent fields and a new mode of charge generation in severe thunderstorms, J. Atmos. Sci. 36 , 1967-1975 . Gathman, S. G. , and R. V. Anderson ( 1977 ). Aircraft measurements of the geomagnetic latitude effect on air-earth current density , J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 39 , 313-316 . Gish, O. H., and G. R. Wait (1950). Thunderstorms and the Earth's general electrification, J. Geophys. Res. 55 , 473-484 . Gonzalez, C. A. M. C. Kelley, B. G. Fejer, J. F. Vickery, and R. F. Woodman (1979). Equatorial electric fields during magnetically disturbed conditions. 2. Implications of simultaneous auroral and equatorial measurements, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 5803-5812 . Gonzalez, W. D. A. E. C. Pereira, A. L. C. Gonzalez, I. M. Martin, S. L. G. Dutra, O. Pinto, Jr., J. Wygant, and F. S. Mozer (1982). Large horizontal electric fields measured at balloon heights of the Brazilian magnetic anomaly and association to local energetic particle precipitation, Geophys. Res. Lett. 9 , 567-570 . Grenet, G. (1947). Essai d'explication de la charge électrique des nuages nuages d'orages, Ann. Geophys. 3 , 306-307 . Grenet, G. (1959). Le Nuage d'orage: Machine électrostatique, Météorologie 1-53 , 45-47 . Hale, L. C., and C. L. Croskey (1979). An auroral effect of the fair weather electric field, Nature 278 , 239-241 . Hale, L. C., C. L. Croskey and J. D. Mitchell (1981). Measurements of middle-atmosphere electric fields and associated electrical conductivities, Geophys. Res. Lett. 8 , 927-930 . Hays, P. B., and R. G. Roble (1979). A quasi-static model of global atmospheric electricity 1. The lower atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 3291-3305 . Heelis, R. A., J. K. Lowell, and R. W. Spiro (1983). A model of the high-latitude ionospheric convection pattern, J. Geophys. Res. 87 , 6339-6345 . Heppner, J. P. (1977). Empirical models of high-latitude electric fields, J. Geophys. Res. 82 , 1115-1125 . Herman, J. R. and R. A. Goldberg (1978). Initiation of non-tropical thunderstorms by solar activity, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 40 , 121-134 . Hill, R. D. (1971). Spherical capacitor hypothesis of the Earth's electric field, Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 , 67-75 . Holzer, R. E., and D. S. Saxon (1952). Distribution of electrical conduction currents in the vicinity of thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res. 57 , 207-216 . Holzworth, R. H. (1981). High latitude stratospheric electrical measurements in fair and foul weather under various solar conditions, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 43 , 1115-1126 . Holzworth R. H. (1984). Hy-wire measurements of atmospheric potential, J. Geophys. Res. 89 , 1395-1401 . Holzworth, R. H., and F. S. Mozer (1979). Direct evidence of solar flare modification of stratospheric electric fields, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 363-367 . Imyanitov, I. M., B. F. Evteev, and I. I. Kamaldina (1969). A thunderstorm cloud, in Planetary Electrodynamics , S. C. Coroniti and J. Hughes, eds., Gordon and Breach Science Publisher, New York, pp. 401-425 . Israël, H. (1973). Atmospheric Electricity , vol. 1 and vol. 2 , translated from German, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. Kasemir, H. W. (1959). The thunderstorm as a generator in the global electric circuit (in German), Z. Geophys. 25 , 33-64 . Kasemir, H. W. (1963). On the theory of the atmospheric electric current flow, IV, Tech. Rep. 2394, U.S. Army Electronics Research and Development Laboratories Fort Monmouth, N.J., October. Kasemir, H. W. (1972). Atmospheric electric measurements in the Arctic and Antarctic, Pure Appl. Geophys. 100 , 70 . Kasemir, H. W. (1977). Theoretical problems of the global atmospheric electric circuit, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 423-438 .

THE GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 230 Kasemir, H. W. (1979). The atmospheric electric global circuit, in Proceeding Workshop on the Need for Lightning Observations from Space , NASA CP-2095, pp. 136-147 . Kelley, M. C. (1983). Middle atmospheric electrodynamics, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 21 , 273-275 . Kelley, M. C., C. L. Siefring, and R. F. Pfaff, Jr. (1983). Large amplitude middle atmospheric electric fields: Fact or fiction, Geophys. Res. Lett. 10 , 733-736 . Kikuchi, T., T. Araki, H. Maeda, and K. Maekawa (1978). Transmission of ionospheric electric fields to the equator, Nature 273 , 650-651 . Krehbiel, P. R., M. Brook, and R. A. McCrosy (1979). An analysis of the charge structure of lightning discharges to ground, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 2432-2456 . Krider, E. P., and J. A. Musser (1982). The Maxwell current density under thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res. 87 , 11171-11176 . Krider, E. P., R. C. Noggle, A. E. Pifer, and D. L. Vance (1980). Lightning direction-finding systems for forest fire detection, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 61 , 980-986 . Markson, R. (1971). Considerations regarding solar and lunar modulation of geophysical parameters, atmospheric electricity and thunderstorms, Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 , 161 . Markson, R. (1976). Ionospheric potential variation obtained from aircraft measurements of potential gradient, J. Geophys. Res. 81 , 1980-1990 . Markson, R. (1977). Airborne atmospheric electrical measurements of the variation of ionospheric potential and electrical structure in the exchange layer over the ocean, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 450-459 . Markson, R. (1978). Solar modulation of atmospheric electrification and possible implications for the sun-weather relationship, Nature 273 , 103-109 . Maynard, N. C., C. L. Croskey, J. D. Mitchell, and L. C. Hale (1981). Measurement of volt/meter vertical electric fields in the middle atmosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett. 8 , 923-926 . Mozer, F. S., (1971). Balloon measurement of vertical and horizontal atmospheric electric fields, Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 , 32-45 . Mozer, F. S., and R. Serlin (1969). Magnetospheric electric field measurements with balloons, J. Geophys. Res. 74 , 4739-4754 . Mühleisen, R. (1977). The global circuit and its parameters, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 467-476 . Neher, H. V. (1967). Cosmic-ray particles that changed from 1954 to 1958 to 1965, J. Geophys. Res. 72 , 1527-1539 . Nopper, R. E., and R. L. Carovillano (1978). Polar equatorial coupling during magnetically active periods, Geophys. Res. Lett. 5 , 699-703 . Orville, R. E., and D. W. Spencer (1979). Global lightning flash frequency, Mon. Weather Rev. 107 , 934-943 . Paramanov, N. A. (1950). To the world time period of the atmospheric electric potential gradient, Dokl. Acad. Sci. USSR 70 , 37-38 . Park, C. G. (1976). Downward mapping of high-latitude electric fields to the ground, J. Geophys. Res. 81 , 168-174 . Park, C. G. (1979). Comparison of two-dimensional and three-dimensional mapping of ionospheric electric field, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 960-964 . Park, C. G., and M. Dejnakarintra (1973). Penetration of thundercloud electric fields into the ionosphere and magnetosphere, 1. Middle and subauroral latitudes, J. Geophys. Res. 78 , 6623-6633 . Park, C. G., and M. Dejnakarintra (1977a). Thundercloud electric fields in the ionosphere, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 544-551 . Park, C. G., and M. Dejnakarintra (1977b). The effects of magnetospheric convection on atmospheric electric fields in the Polar Cap, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 536-542 . Parkinson, W. C., and O. W. Torrenson (1931). The diurnal variation of the electrical potential of the atmosphere over the oceans, Compt. Rend. de I'Assemblée de Stockholm, 1930; IUGG (sect. Terrest. Magn. Electr. Bull. 8, 340-345. Pierce, E. T. (1970). Latitudinal variation of lightning parameters, J. Appl. Meteorol. 9 , 194-195 . Pierce, E. T. (1977). Stratospheric electricity and the global circuit, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 582-586 . Polk, C. (1982). Schumann resonances, in Handbook of Atmospherics , Vol. 1 , H. Volland, ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., pp. 112-178 . Prentice, S. A., and D. Macherras (1977). The ratio of cloud to cloud-ground lightning flashes in thunderstorms, J. Appl. Meteorol. 16 , 545-550 . Rawlins, F. (1982). A numerical study of thunderstorm electrification using a three-dimensional model incorporating the ice phase, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 108 , 778-880 . Reid, G. C. (1976). Ion chemistry in the D-region, Adv. Atom. Mol. Phys. 12 , 375-411 . Reid, G. C. (1977). The production of water-cluster positive ions in the quiet daytime D-region, Planet. Space Sci. 25, 275-290. Reiter, R. (1969). Solar flares and their impact on potential gradient and air-earth current characteristics at high mountain stations, Pure Appl. Geophys. 72 , 259 . Reiter, R. (1971). Further evidence for impact of solar flares or potential gradient and air-earth current characteristics at high mountain stations, Pure Appl. Geophys. 86 , 142 . Reiter, R. (1972). Case study concerning the impact of solar activity upon potential gradient and air-earth current in the lower troposphere, Pure Appl. Geophys. 94 , 218-225 . Reiter, R. (1973). Increased influx of stratospheric air into the lower troposphere after solar Hα and x-ray flares, J. Geophys. Res. 78 , 6167 . Reiter, R. (1977a). Atmospheric electricity activities of the Institute for Atmospheric Environmental Research, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 759-796 . Reiter, R. (1977b). The electric potential of the ionosphere as controlled by the solar magnetic sector structure, result of a study over the period of a solar cycle, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 39 , 95-99 . Roble, R. G., and P. B. Hays (1979). A quasi-static model of global atmospheric electricity, 2. Electrical coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 7247-7256 . Roble, R. G., and P. B. Hays (1982). Solar-terrestrial effects on the global electrical circuit, in Solar Variability, Weather, and Climate , NRC Geophysics Study Committee, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 92-106 . Sojka, J. J., W. J. Raitt, and R. W. Schunk (1979). Effect of displaced geomagnetic and geographic poles on high-latitude plasma convection and ionospheric depletions, J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 5943-5951 . Sojka, J. J., W. J. Raitt, and R. W. Schunk (1980). A comparison of model predictions for plasma convection in the northern and southern polar regions, J. Geophys. Res. 85 , 1762-1768 . Solomon, S., P. J. Crutzen, and R. G. Roble (1982a). Photochemical coupling between the thermosphere and lower atmosphere, I, Odd nitrogen from 50 to 120 km, J. Geophys. Res. 87 , 7206-7220 . Solomon, S., G. C. Reid, R. G. Roble, and P. J. Crutzen (1982b). Photochemical coupling between the thermosphere and lower atmosphere II, D-region ion chemistry and winter anomaly , J. Geophys. Res. 87 , 7221-7227 .

THE GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC-ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT 231 Stergis, C. G. G. C. Rein, and T. Kangas (1957a). Electric field measurements above thunderstorms, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 11 , 83-90 . Stergis, C. G., G. C. Rein, and T. Kangas (1957b). Electric field measurements in the stratosphere, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 11 , 77-82 . Tyutin, A. A. (1976). Mesospheric maximum of the electric field strength, Cosmic Res. 14 , 132-133 . Tzur, I, and Z. Levin (1981). Ions and precipitation charging in warm and cold clouds as simulated in one dimensional time-dependent models, J. Atmos. Sci. 38 , 2444-2461 . Tzur, I., and R. G. Roble (1983). Ambipolar diffusion in the middle atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 88 , 338-344 . Tzur, I., and R. G. Roble (1985a). Atmospheric electric field and current configurations in the vicinity of mountains, J. Geophys. Res. 90 , 5979-5988 . Tzur, I., and R. G. Roble (1985b). The interaction of a dipolar thunderstorm with its global electrical environment, J. Geophys. Res. 90 , 5989-5999 . Tzur, I., R. G. Roble, H. C. Zhuang, and R. C. Reid (1983). The response of the Earth's global electrical circuit to a solar proton event, in Solar-Terrestrial Influences on Weather and Climate , B. McCormac, ed., Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder, Colo., pp. 427-435 . Vampola, A. L. (1977). VLF transmission induced slot electron precipitation, Geophys. Res. Lett. 4 , 569-572 . Volland, H. (1972). Mapping of the electric field of the Sq current into the lower atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 77 , 1961-1965 . Volland, H. (1975). Models of global electric fields within the magnetosphere, Ann. Geophys. 31 , 154-173 . Volland, H. (1977). Global quasi-static electric fields in the Earth's environment, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, pp. 509-527 . Volland, H. (1978). A model of magnetospheric electric convection field, J. Geophys. Res. 83 , 2695-2699 . Volland, H. (1982). Quasi-electrostatic fields within the atmosphere, in CRC Handbook of Atmospherics , Vol. 1 , H. Volland, ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., pp. 65-109 . Volland, H. (1984). Atmospheric electrodynamics, in Physics and Chemistry in Space , Vol. II , Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 203 pp . Vonnegut, B. (1953). Possible mechanism for the formation of thunderstorm electricity, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 34 , 378 . Vonnegut, B. (1965). Thunderstorm theory, in Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity , Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Atmos. Space Elec., Montreux, Switzerland, May 1963, S. C. Coroniti, ed., Elsevier, New York. Vonnegut, B., C. B. Moore, R. P. Espinola, and H. H. Blau, Jr. (1966). Electric potential gradients above thunderstorms, J. Atmos. Sci. 23 , 764-770 . Vonnegut, B., R. Markson, and C. B. Moore (1973). Direct measurement of vertical potential differences in the lower atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. 78 , 4526-4528 . Wait, J. R. (1960). Terrestrial propagation of very-low-frequency radio waves, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. Sec. D 64 , 152-163 . Whipple, F. J. W., and F. J. Scrase (1936). Point discharge in the electric field of the Earth, Geophys. Memoirs (London) VIII(68), 20 . Willett, J. C. (1979). Solar modulation of the supply current for atmospheric electricity? J. Geophys. Res. 84 , 4999-5002 . Wilson, C. T. R. (1920). Investigation on lightning discharges and on the electric field of thunderstorms, Phil. Trans. A 221 , 73-115 .

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This latest addition to the Studies in Geophysics series explores in scientific detail the phenomenon of lightning, cloud, and thunderstorm electricity, and global and regional electrical processes. Consisting of 16 papers by outstanding experts in a number of fields, this volume compiles and reviews many recent advances in such research areas as meteorology, chemistry, electrical engineering, and physics and projects how new knowledge could be applied to benefit mankind.

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