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A Relationship
Restored
Irends in U. S.-China
Eclucational Exchanges, 1978-1981
David M. Lampton
with
Joyce A. Madancy and Kristen M. Williams
for
The Committee on Scholarly Communication
with the People's Republic of China
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1986
t
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National Academy Press 2101 Constitution Ave., NW Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was sponsored by the Committee
on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China. Those responsible for
the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate
balance. The report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors.
This study was made possible by funds provided by the Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs of the United States Information Agency under the authority of the
Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961 and by the Ford Foundation.
The Committee on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China
(CSCPRC) is jointly sponsored by the American Council of Learned Societies, the Social
Science Research Council, and the National Academy of Sciences. The Academy provides
an administrative base for the CSCPRC.
Since the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States ant] China in
1979, the CSCPRC has developed programs with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS),
the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), and the State Education Commission, in
addition to those with the China Association for Science and Technology (CAST), with
whom CSCPRC began exchanges in 1972. Current activities include a program for Ameri-
can graduate students and postdoctoral scholars to carry out long-term study or research in
affiliation with Chinese universities and research institutes; a short-term reciprocal
exchange of senior-level Chinese and American scholars; a bilateral conference program;
and an exchange of joint working groups in selected fields.
CSCPRC programs are funded by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Informa-
tion Agency, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the U.S. Department of Edu-
cation, the Ford Foundation, the Henry Luce Foundation, the John D. and Catherine T.
MacArthur Foundation, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Starr Foundation, and
select corporations.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-61028
ISBN 0-309-03678-X
Printed in the United States of America
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Steering Committee
Chairman
GEORGE BECKMANN, Provost, University of Washington
Members
C~AnENcE ALLEN, Professor of Geology and Geophysics, California
Institute of Technology
PETER D. BELL, President, Edna McConnell Clark Foundation
ROBERT BOCK, Dean of Graduate Studies, University of Wisconsin,
Madison
JEFFREY B. GAYNER, Counselor for International Affairs, The Heritage
Foundation
DAv~D N. KEIGHTLEY, Professor of History, University of California,
Berkeley
YUAN LEE, Professor of Chemistry, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley
ROBERT MARSHAK, University Distinguished Professor, Physics, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University
DouG~As P. MURRAY, Executive Director, Trustees of Lingnan
University; Executive Secretary, Committee on International
Relations Studies with the PRC
SUSAN NAQu~N, Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania
WALTER A. RosENs~TH, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of
Sciences
ROBERT ScA~AP~No, Director, Institute of East Asian Studies, University
of California, Berkeley
· · ~
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Research Team
Project Director
DAVID M. LAMPTON
Research and Editorial Consultants
PEGGY BLUMENTHAL
JOYCE A. MADANCY
SUSAN WALTON
TYRENE WHITE
KRISTEN M. WILLIAMS
Senior CSCPRC Staff Perso
Patricia Tsuchitani
CSCPRC Staff Researchers
Evie Lotze
Pamela Peirce
Kyna Rubin
Danny Sebright
1V
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Foreword
One result of the resumption of relations between the United States
and the People's Republic of China has been the development of exten-
sive academic exchange programs. Thousands of Chinese students and
scholars are studying and pursuing research at American colleges and
universities, and many of them are returning to their homeland to play
important roles in China's modernization programs. American students
and scholars have been going to China in increasing numbers for study
and research. Their efforts are expanding our knowledge of Chinese
culture and society, and contributing to the social and natural sciences
more generally.
This report embraces five major aims: (1) to describe these academic
exchange relationships, (2) to analyze the nature of the exchanges, (3) to
assess their impact, (4) to focus attention on issues and problems, and
(5) to make policy recommendations.
The Steering Committee determined the initial outline and broad
directions of the report and worked closely with Dr. David M. Lampton
and his capable staff, who have prepared successive drafts of the report
for our review. The Steering Committee therefore assumes responsibil-
ity for the report.
The Steering Committee believes that this report will be of broad
interest to Americans and Chinese and that it will enhance efforts to
improve and further develop academic ties between our two countries.
George Beckmann
Chairman, Steering Committee
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Acknowledgments
This study was made possible by funds provided by the United States
Information Agency (USIA) and the Ford Foundation.
Scholars, college and university administrators, foundation officials,
and policymakers in both the United States and China need basic infor-
mation about the magnitude, character, and impact of Sino-American
academic exchanges between 1978 and 1984. Equally important, the
academic relationship between China and the United States is changing
so rapidly that it is time to step back and address some of the basic
policy issues that have arisen. Therefore, in late 1983, the Committee
on Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China
(CSCPRC) constituted a Study Steering Committee chaired by Univer-
silty of Washington Provost George Beckmann, with the membership
listed on page iii of this volume. A team was assembled to undertake the
research and writing. The following report is the fruit of that labor. The
research and writing team is greatly indebted to George Beckmann and
the other members of the Steering Committee for providing essential
guidance.
We are indebted to the many individuals and organizations that
cooperated in the preparation of this study even though it is not possible
to thank each one individually here. We must, however, express our
gratitude to everyone at the universities, colleges, foundations, and
professional associations who responded to our questionnaires. We par-
ticularly wish to acknowledge the assistance of those universities where
Kyna Rubin of the CSCPRC conducted interviews: Appalachian State
vii
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· · —
V111
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
University, Hofstra University, Oberlin College, Stanford University,
the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Minnesota,
and the University of Pittsburgh. Halsey L. Beemer, Jr., executive direc-
tor of the International Advisory Panel of the Chinese University Devel-
opment Project, was of great assistance in providing information
concerning World Bank activities in China. Linda Reed at the National
Association for Foreign Student Affairs in Washington, D.C., provided
essential lists of names and guidance as we developed our survey ques-
tionnaires. In addition, Mary Ernst at the Council for International
Exchange of Scholars compiled much of the information on Fulbright
participants.
Our analysis of the impacts of academic exchanges on specific fields
of study would have been impossible without the commissioned papers
prepared by Joseph Birman of the City College of New York, Bruce A.
Bolt of the University of California at Berkeley, Ronald Glaser of Ohio
State University, Terry Sicular of Stanford University, and Sylvan Witt-
wer of Michigan State University. We would also like to thank Mary B.
Bullock, staff director of the CSCPRG, and Michel C. Oksenberg of the
University of Michigan for making available to us the draft chapters in
their forthcoming volume on Sino-American exchanges. We appreciate
the cooperation of contributors to that volume as well.
Cooperation in this undertaking was not limited to the private sector.
Many U.S. government agencies and the dedicated individuals who
work for them provided essential assistance. In particular, we thank
Louise Crane, James Huskey, Joseph Simpson, and Gordon Tubbs of the
USIA for their efforts on our behalf. Gene B. Marshall, Lynn Noah,
Leon Slawecki, and Karl Olsson of the U.S. Embassy in Beijing each
greatly facilitated our work, as did Peter Chase and James Keith of the
U. S. Department of State in Washington, D. C. Finally, Ann I.
Schneider of the Department of Education provided invaluable statisti-
cal information on Title VI and National Defense Foreign Language
fellowships.
In the course of this study, some questions arose that only Chinese
authorities could answer. We wish to thank China's Ministry of Educa-
tion (which became the State Education Commission in 1985) and Chi-
na's representatives in Washington, D.C., for their assistance in
providing specific statistical and policy information.
To the staff of the CSCPRC and the National Academy of Sciences'
Office of International Affairs, who endured nearly two years of dislo-
cation on our behalf, we express our particular appreciation. Special
thanks are due Mary B. Bullock and Victor Rabinowitch for their
patience, guidance, and encouragement. Patricia Tsuchitani played an
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
especially important role in this study, and we acknowledge her help
with gratitude. Peggy Blumenthal and Tyrene White both played criti-
cal roles in the early stages of the study, particularly in questionnaire
design and preliminary analysis. Chuck Rexroad at the National Acad-
emy of Sciences' Office of Automation Services helped design and
implement our data analysis system and our archive of statistical infor-
mation on the exchanges. We wish to express particular appreciation to
Susan Walton, who edited the entire manuscript superbly and with
good cheer. Finally, to Dale R. Corson, President Emeritus of Cornell
University, we express our thanks for his advice and wise counsel.
David M. Lampton
Project Director
1:
.x
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Principal Findings, 2
Issues and Directions for the Future, 5
1. THE SINO-AMERICAN ACADEMIC RELATIONSHIP.
IMAGES AND INTERESTS .
2. THE CONTEXT FOR ACADEMIC EXCHANGE
· ~
Pre-1950 Sino-American Academic Relations, 16
Sino-Soviet Exchanges, 1950-1960, 20
Global Setting of Current Sino-American Exchanges, 23
Policies, Perceptions, and the Dynamics of Academic
Exchange in the 1970s and 1980s, 26
Notes, 27
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCHANGE PARTICIPANTS
· · .
PRC Students and Scholars in America, 31
Numbers of PRO Students and Visiting Scholars, 1979-1984.
31
X1
9
. 15
. 30
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· ~
X11
Fields of Study, 37
Personal Attributes: Geographic Variation, 40
Personal Attributes: Socioeconomic Status, 42
Personal Attributes: Age, Sex, and Marital Status, 45
Financing of PRC Students and Scholars in the
United States, 46
Overview of American Students and Scholars in China,
1979-1984, 53
Numbers of American Students and Scholars, 53
Fields of Study, 55
Principal Finclings and Conclusions, 55
Notes, 58
4. EXCHANGE PROGRAMS AND SPONSORS
Federal Programs, 64
Bilateral Agreements, 64
The Fulbright Program, 66
National Science Foundation, 68
CSCPRC Programs, 69
Chinese University Development Project and Other Activities
of the World Bank, 75
China-Related Activities of American Private Philanthropic
Organizations: An Overview, 77
Education, 78
Health and Medical Sciences, 86
Culture and the Arts, 88
Professional Associations, 90
Other Educational Exchange Organizations, 93
Institute of International Education, 93
National Committee on United States-China Relations, Inc.,
94
Yale-China Association, 95
Conclusions and Observations, 96
Notes, 98
EXCHANGE ON CAMPUS
CONTENTS
. 62
· ~
. 102
PRC Students and Scholars on the American Campus, 103
Regional and Institutional Distribution, 103
Funding PRC Students and Scholars on the American Campus, 105
The Issue of Financial Remissions to China, 107
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CONTENTS
PRC Students and Scholars: American Funding and
Perceptions of Quality, 108
Interinstitutional Arrangements, 110
Principal Conclusions and Recommendations, 116
Notes, 117
6. LANGUAGE TRAINING IN CHINESE AND ENGLISH
.
Assessment of Language Preparation of American Students
and Scholars Who Go to China, 120
Where to Study Chinese Language, 124
Assessment of English Language Preparation of PRC Students
and Scholars Who Come to the United States, 127
Principal Findings and Recommendations, 129
Notes, 130
7. THE CONSEQUENCES OF EXCHANGE FOR SELECTED
DISCIPLINES
Selectee] Fields of Chinese Studies, 133
Study of the Chinese Past, 133
Sociology and Anthropology, 138
Political Science, 141
Aspects of Chinese Literature (Modern and Traditional) and
the Arts, 143
Economics, 145
American Studies, 148
Aspects of Natural Sciences, 150
Physics, 151
Cancer (Epidemiology) Research, 154
Seismology, 156
Agriculture, 161
Conclusions and Recommendations,
Notes, 167
165
8. FUTURE ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES
Institutional Changes, 171
Returned PRC Students and Scholars: "Reabsorption," 172
· · ~
x~
. 119
. 132
. 171
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Technology Transfer: Issues for the Future, 175
Future Opportunities for Cumulative and Cooperative
Research, 177
Involvement in Scientific, Economic, and Technical Change
in China, 177
Notes, 179
APPENDIXES
A. Tables A-1 Through A-33
B.
C. Institutions Responding to Asian Studies Questionnaire
D. National Key Institutions
E.
· ~
Institutions Responding to University Questionnaire
· · ~
Multivariate Analysis of the Determinants of Financial Aid
Given to J-1 Visa Holders by the Chinese Government and
American Universities
F. Responding American Philanthropic Organizations,
Professional Associations, and Other Exchange
Organizations
G. Protocols and Memoranda of Understanding Under the
U.S.-PRC Agreement on Cooperation in Science and
Technology
H. CSCPRC Programs, 1972-1985
I. World Bank Group Education Projects in China
I. Chinese Language Study Programs in the PRC .
K.
L.
~ ~ , ~
Authors of Commissioned Papers .
Restricted Classes and Conferences
GLOSSARY
INDEX
.
.
·
·
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CONTENTS
181
216
223
225
227
231
233
239
242
244
247
248
251
255
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List of Tables
Chapter 3
3-1 J-1 and F-1 Visas Issued in the PRC, 1979 Through 1983; 32
3-2 New and Continuing PRC Students and Scholars with J-1 Visas,
1979 Through 1983; 32
3-3 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars by
Category, 1979 Through 1983; 34
3-4 Percentage Distribution of PRC J- 1 Students and Scholars
Entering New Programs, by Category, 1979 Through 1983; 34
3-5 Planned Length of Stay in United States of PRC F-1 ant] J-1 Visa
Holders; 35
3-6 PRC Students and Scholars in the United States, Projected from
Possible Increase, 1979 Through 1992; 36
3-7 Percentage Distribution of PRC F-1 Visa Holders by Intended
Field of Study in United States, 1983; 38
3-8 Percentage Distribution of PRC J-1 Students and Scholars by
Field of Study, 1979 Through 1984; 39
3-9 Percentage Distribution of PRC F-1 and ]-1 Visa Holders by
Birthplace and Residence, Compared to 1982 PRC Population
Distribution, 1983; 41
3-10 Percentage Distribution of PRC J-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by
Occupation in China, 1983; 43
3-11 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars
Beginning New Programs in the United States by Occupation in
China, 1979 Through 1983; 44
xv
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XVI
LIST OF TABLES
3-12 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by
Employer in China, 1983; 44
3-13 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by Age,
1983; 45
3-14 Percentage Distribution of J-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by Stated
Source of Financial Support, 1983; 47
3-15 Financial Support for PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars by Source,
1979 Through 1983 (in thousands of dollars); 48
3-16 Percentage Distribution of Sources of Financial Support for PRC
]-1 Students and Scholars, 1979 Through 1983; 49
3-17 Percentage Distribution of Sources of Funding for New and Con-
tinuing PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars, 1979 Through 1983; 49
3-18 Percentage Distribution of Funds Spent on J-1 Students and
Scholars, Excluding Those from the PRC, by Source of Funds,
1979 Through 1983; 50
3-19 Percentage Distribution of Funds Spent on PRC ]-1 Students, by
Source of Funds, 1979 Through 1983; 51
3-20 Percentage Distribution of Funds Spent on PRC ]-1 Research
Scholars, by Source of Funds, 1979 Through 1983; 51
3-21 American Students and Scholars Traveling to the PRC, by
Category, 1979 Through 1983; 54
3-22 Percentage Distribution of American Graduate Students and
Faculty in All Fields Who Conducted or Planned to Conduct One
Month or More of Research in the PRC, by Field, 1978-1979
Through 1983-1984; 56
3-23 Percentage Distribution of American Chinese Studies Graduate
Students and Faculty Conducting or Planning One Month or
More of Research in the PRC, by Field, 1978-1979 Through
1984-1985; 56
Chapter 4
4-1 CSCPRC National Program Grantees, by Program Category and
Program Year, 1978-1979 Through 1984-1985; 71
Percentage Distribution of CSCPRC National Program Grantees
by Field Designation, for Program Years 1978-1979 Through
1984-1985; 72
4-3 Percentage Distribution of American and Chinese DSEP Grantees
by Field Designation, 1979-1980 Through 1984-1985; 73
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LIST OF TABLES
Appendix A
XV11
· ~
Native Provinces of Chinese Students in the United States, for
Selected Years, 1903 Through 1945 (percent); 181
Fields of Chinese Students in America, for Selected Years, 1905
Through 1952-1953 (percent); 182
A-3 Number of Faculty Members Trained Abroad and to Be Sent
Abroad Under China University Development Project, Between
September 1982 and April 1984; 184
A-4 PRC-Government-Sponsored Students Sent to Japan; 186
A-5 Percentage Distribution of J-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by Sex and
Marital Status, 1983; 186
A-6 Percentage Distribution of PRC J-1 Students and Scholars by
Field of Study and Category, 1979 Through 1984; 187
A-7 Percentage Distribution of Female PRC ]-1 Students and Scholars
by Field, 1979 Through 1984; 188
A-8 Percentage Distribution of PRC F-1 Visa Holders by Sex and
Educational Background, 1983; 188
A-9 Percentage Distribution of J-1 Students and Scholars Beginning
New Programs in the United States, by Age, 1979 Through 1983;
189
A-10 Estimated Financial Support for All PRC Students and Scholars,
by Visa Category, 1979 Through 1983; 190
A-ll CIES American Fulbright Lecturers to the PRC, 1980 Through
1984; 191
A-12 Field Distribution of CIES American Fulbright Lecturers in the
PRC, 1980 Through 1984; 191
A-13 Percentage Distribution of CIES American Fulbright Lecturers in
the PRC, by City, 1980 Through 1984; 192
A-14 Fielc] Distribution of CIES Chinese Fulbright Lecturers in the
United States, 1980 Through 1984; 192
A-15 Field Distribution of CIES Chinese Fulbright Researchers in the
United States, 1980 Through 1984; 193
A-16 CIES Chinese Fulbright Lecturers and Researchers in the United
States, by Year, 1980 Through 1984; 193
A-17 CSCPRC National Program Grantees in Anthropology,
Economics, Political Science, and Sociology, by Program Year,
1978-1979 Through 1984-1985; 194
A-18 The 12 U. S. Universities with the Most CSCPRC National
Program Grantees, 1978-1979 Through 1984-1985; 194
A-l9 Geographic Distribution of Principal Hosts of CSCPRC National
Program Grantees by Province/Municipality in China, 1978-1979
Through 1984-1985; 195
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XV111
LIST OF TABLES
A-20 Chinese DSEP Grantees by Sex, 1979-1980 Through 1984-1985;
196
A-21 American DSEP Grantees by Sex, 1979-1980 Through 1984-
1985; 196
A-22 Chinese and American DSEP Grantees by Program Year
1979-1980 Through 1984-1985; 196
A-23 (Part I) Number of Faculty Members Trained Abroad and to Be
Sent Abroad for Degrees from 10 Project Universities in Beijing
and Shanghai, as of June 30, 1985; 197
A-23 (Part 11) Number of Students Abroad Under the World Bank
China University Development Project (from beginning of project
to March 31, 1985~; 198
A-24 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by
Intended Region of Residence in the United States, 1983; 199
A-25 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders in
California and New York, 1983; 199
A-26 U.S. Colleges and Universities with the Largest Numbers of PRC
]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders Issued Visas in 1983; 200
A-27 Ten U.S. Universities/Colleges and States with Largest PRC
Student Populations, Academic Year 1984-1985; 201
A-28 Percentage Distribution of PRC ]-1 and F-1 Visa Holders by Type
of American University Affiliation, in 1983; 201
A-29 University-to-University Exchanges, by Agreement Type and
Number of Students and Scholars Exchanged Through
1983-1984; 202
A-30 Additional Interinstitutional Agreements Between U.S. and PRC
Institutions; 211
A-31 PRC Institutions Known to Have One or More Exchanges with a
U.S. University; 212
A-32 Number of American Scholars Supported by University Funds for
Travel to the PRC, 1983 Through 1985; 215
A-33 Title VI Fellowship Expenditures and Grants Awarded
Fiscal Years 1980 Through 1984; 215
, by Year,
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