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OCR for page 113
5
CABIN AIR POLLUTANTS: SOURCES AND EXPOSURES
Little is known about the environment in the
passenger cabins of commercial aircraft under routine
flight conditions, and what is known is limited in
scope. Relationships among source strengths of
pollutants, physical factors (such as ventilation rates
and operating modes), occupancy loads, and activities
(such as eating and smoking) have not been systematically
studied. Lacking a repository of the existing
information, the Committee searched the published
literature to obtain relevant material on pollutants
known to be potentially hazardous or to cause acute
irritation and on physical factors that affect comfort.
On the basis of the results of the searches, this chapter
discusses ozone, cosmic radiation, ground fumes, tobacco
smoke and carbon monoxide, biologic aerosols, relative
humidity, cabin pressure, carbon dioxide, volatile
organic chemicals, and pesticides.
OZONE
OZONE IN COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT CABINS
Ozone is present in the atmosphere as a consequence
of the photochemical conversion of oxygen by solar
ultraviolet radiation. A marked and progressive
increase in ozone concentration occurs between the
tropopause and the stratosphere--i.e., it occurs within
the flight altitude of commercial aircraft.
The mean ambient ozone concentration increases with
increasing latitude, is maximal during spring, and often
varies with weather systems to result in high ozone
plumes descending down to lower altitudes.
113
OCR for page 114
114
In the early 1960s, R. I. Brabets et al.24
established that Jet aircraft operating in the
stratosphere encountered ozone and that it was only
partially removed from the internal environment of the
aircraft by the compression-ventilation system. In
response to these findings, the Global Atmospheric
Sampling Program (GASP), started by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration in 1977, measured
ozone concentrations in the cabins of two commercially
operated aircraft. In 1980, Nastrom et al.107 reported
that over 5,600 observations were made in this project
in a B-747-100 and a B-747-SP. The ozone concentrations
measured in the outside air and in the cabin of an
unmodified B-747-SP are shown in Figure 5-1.
boon
800
~2
C 600
of
o
z
CD
<( 400
200
o
0'
° e',' 0
'0 0
o 200 400
ATMOSPHERIC OZONE, ppb
/
O 0:
~007 ~ O o O
0 OOo8 ~ ooze ~ 0
a ~0 Q)~e 6E o
or
1 1 1 1 1 1
600
800 1,000
o
FIGURE 5-1 Correlation (slope, 0.82) of cabin
with atmospheric ozone mixing ratios. Data were
obtained during April, May, and June 1977 before
changes were made in B-747-SP air circulation
system. Squares show data taken in April.
Reprinted from Perkins et al.ll 4
OCR for page 115
115
Crew members' and passengers' complaints of physical
discomfort on high-altitude flights led the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) to begin to collect
information on possible causes.159 In 1977, the agency
took five steps to investigate further whether ozone was
the pollutant responsible for the complaints:
· It published an advisory circular that defined
ozone irritation, discussed its cause and symptoms, and
described means of dealing with it.l59
· It initiated a research project in the Civil
Aeromedical Institute to study the health effects of
exposure to ozone in the aviation environment.
· It issued Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking
No. 77-22 to seek information concerning ozone. i57
.
It initiated a project to measure the
constituents of the upper atmosphere.
· It initiated a study of available data on ozone
concentrations at flight altitudes to provide an estimate
of average atmospheric ozone at flight altitudes.
On the basis of these efforts, FAA established a
standard for cabin ozone concentration. 31 The Code of
Federal Regulations of January 1, 1985, stated the
following: "The airplane cabin ozone concentration
during flight must be shown not to exceed 0.25 ppm, sea
level equivalent, at any time above flight level 320
[32,000 ft at standard atmosphere]; or 0.10 ppmv during
any 3-hour interval above flight level 270 [27,000 ft at
standard atmosphere]."
HEALTH EFFECTS OF OZONE UNDER HIGH-ALTITUDE CONDITIONS
The following text discusses several experimental
studies involving humans. See Chapter 6 for discussion
of findings on human exposure and resulting effects
during flight.
Toxic effects of ozone on the respiratory system
have been investigated in numerous human studies
involving controlled exposures to ozone at concentrations
observed in community air., 56 The characteristic odor
OCR for page 116
116
of ozone can be detected by some people exposed to it at
concentrations as low as 0.001 ppm.~43 This may be
important because of perception of exposure. The
threshold varies among individuals, but most people can
detect ozone at 0.02 ppm. Controlled human studies have
reported respiratory symptoms and significant decrements
in pulmonary function associated with ozone exposure.
The severity of reported symptoms generally parallels
the observed impairment in pulmonary function. Symptoms
include cough, upper airway irritation, tickle in the
throat, chest discomfort, substantial pain or soreness,
difficulty or pain in taking a deep breath, shortness of
breath, wheezing, headache, fatigue, nasal congestion,
and eye irritation. Cough is the symptom most strongly
correlated with the decrement in pulmonary function.
These symptoms and the alteration in pulmonary function
usually disappear soon after the termination of the
exposure. Some subjects have reported persistence of
changes in excess of 24 h, but most disappear within
2-4 h. If exposure is repeated within 24-48 h,
pulmonary function decrements are markedly greater. 6 5
Studies in environmental chambers using at-rest
(i.e., no-exercise) exposures to ozone have shown that
ambient ozone at 0.5 ppm or more induces significant
decrements in pulmonary function. 66 Impairment in
pulmonary function occurs at much lower ambient
concentrations of ozone if subjects are exercising.
Subjects engaged in light exercise (ventilation,
approximately 20-25 L/min) had significant pulmonary
function decrements when ozone was present at 0.37 ppm.
In persons exercising moderately to heavily (26-40
L/min), pulmonary decrements have been observed during
exposures at 0~14-0-18 ppm. 5 0 ~ ~ ~ 7
Lategola and associates attempted more quantitative
evaluation of problems associated with ozone exposures
of flight attendants and passengers. Lategola et al. 85
exposed 55 young subjects (29 men and 26 women) to
ambient air and to an ozone environment in an altitude
chamber maintained at 1,829 m (6,000 ft). Subjects
served as their own controls in each experiment. Two
major experiments were conducted on 27 subjects (15 men
and 12 women) and 28 subjects (14 men and 14 women).
OCR for page 117
117
In the first experiment, ozone concentrations* were
O and 315 ~g/m3 (0.0 and 0.2 ppm), exposure time was 4 h
(with four 10-min exercise periods, the first three at
lower levels of activity and the fourth at a higher
level), and pulmonary function and subjective evaluations
were noted before and after exposure. Pulmonary function
and subjective responses were recorded near sea level
before and 10 min after the altitude exposures. Other
studies--on vision, hand steadiness, and memory--were
conducted during the high-altitude exposures. Men
exercised at ventilation of 20 L/min in the first three
exercise periods and 30 L/min in the last period, Just
before descent; women exercised at 13 and 17 L/min,
respectively. No alterations in measured pulmonary
functions were found; although slight discomfort was
reported, it was not significantly related to ozone
exposure. In the second experiment, the ozone
concentration was 475 ~g/m3 (0.3 ppm), and only three
exercise periods were used. Men exercised at 24.9 L/min
in the first two periods and 38.6 L/min in the last, and
women at 16.4 and 20.9 L/min, respectively.
Significantly greater symptom scores were found after
the last exercise period and after termination of the
experiment. In this experiment, differences between the
no-ozone and ozone responses in all spirometry measures--
forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume
(FEV1), and forced expiratory flow (FEF25_75% and
FEF75_95~0~--in each sex group were statistically
significant (n < 0.05~. The two lung-volume measures
manifested smaller changes than did flow-rate measures.
Symptom scores were greater in men than in women during
the last exercise (treadmill) period, but the difference
was not statistically significant. The results indicate
increased symptoms and pulmonary function decrements
among normal subjects at 0.3 ppm, but not at 0.2 ppm
with light exercise.
* Note that, as ambient pressure decreases at high
altitude, ozone concentration remains the same when
expressed in parts per million, but decreases in
proportion to increasing altitude when expressed in
micrograms per cubic meter. Therefore, knowledge of
atmospheric pressure and temperature is generally needed
for correct conversion of ppm readings to ~g/m3
concentrations.
OCR for page 118
118
Lategola et al.86 also studied 40 middle-aged men--
20 smokers and 20 nonsmokers--exposed in an altitude
chamber (1,829 m) while resting for 3 h in environments
containing ozone at O or 475 ~g/m3 (0.0 or O.3 ppm).
Eye discomfort was the most frequently reported symptom;
headache and nose and throat irritation were also
reported. All subjects combined manifested small but
statistically significant decrements in FVC, FEV1, and
FEF7s_95%, primarily owing to changes in the nonsmoking
group. Smokers reported fewer or less severe symptoms,
in confirmation of observations reported by others. The
study tended to confirm small but significant respiratory
effects at 0.3 ppm among nonsmoking normal adults under
high-altitude conditions. The ozone concentrations used
in the Lategola et al. studier were, however, generally
lower than those reported to occur in some aircraft at
high altitudes.
Determination of the effects of known aircraft cabin
ozone concentrations on passengers and flight attendants
will require additional information from studies
conducted on board, as well as immediately after flights,
with continuous measurements of the cabin environment.
GROUPS AT INCREASED RISK OF HEALTH EFFECTS
Epidemiologic investigations of high-risk groups
have played a predominant role in the development of the
current ambient air quality standard for ozone. As far
back as 1961, Schoettlin and Landau1 3 5 studied 137
asthmatics in the Los Angeles basin during a 3-mo period
when high oxidant concentrations due to smog were
anticipated. They found a statistically significant
increase in the number of mild attacks when peak oxidant
concentrations exceeded 0.25 ppm. A further assessment
by Heuss et al.59 associated these asthmatic attacks
with hourly average concentrations as low as O.lS ppm.
They concluded that, when the ozone concentration is
0.15 ppm, there is a loo chance of a 5% increase in
asthmatic attacks. Barth et al. 2 ~ extrapolated these
data and concluded that there "is a likelihood of an
increased asthmatic attack incidence for very sensitive
patients at levels well below 0.15 ppm rather than Just
a chance of a small increase in attacks at the 0.15 ppm
level."
OCR for page 119
119
RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter 3 pointed out that the federal regulations
concerning aircraft cabin ozone concentrations may be
complied with either through the use of air treatment
equipment (usually a catalytic converter) or through the
choice of routes and altitudes that avoid areas of high
ozone concentration. Ozone concentrations in aircraft
depend also on latitude, not only on altitude. In
1978-1979, FAA monitored ozone on flights (mostly at
30,000-40,000 ft) and found that lie were in violation
of FAA's ozone concentration limits. i23 Because
catalytic converters are subject to contamination and
loss of efficiency, it is suggested that FAA establish
policies for periodic removal and testing, so that the
effective life of these units can be established. A
program of monitoring is needed, to establish compliance
with the existing standard and to determine whether the
catalytic converters are operating normally and
effectively.
These data should be maintained in such a
manner that they can be used for reference on Passenger
and crew exposures to ozone and to document the
concentrations of ozone.
COSMIC RADIATION
We are exposed to ionizing radiation from several
sources. Some is natural, such as cosmic radiation and
terrestrial radiation, and some is from man-made sources,
such as medical x rays, radioisotope drugs, nuclear
fallout, nuclear power-plant emission, uranium and
phosphate mine tailings, and nuclear waste materials.
The question before the Committee is whether the
incremental exposure of passengers and crew of commercial
subsonic aircraft results in an unacceptable risk.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COSMIC RADIATION
Cosmic radiation is both solar and galactic in
origin. Galactic radiation is composed of protons (87%),
alpha particles (11%), a few nuclei with atomic number of
3 or more (approximately 1%), and electrons at energies
up to 102° eV (approximately 1%~. The normative range
of energies is 108-1011 eV. The sun generates a
continuous flux of lower-energy (approximately 103 eV)
OCR for page 120
12G
charged particles, and occasional solar magnetic
disturbances generate large quantities of particles with
energies up to several billion electron volts; the
typical range is 1-100 MeV. The integrated flux of
solar particles with energies of 20 MeV or more to the
top of the earth's atmosphere varies with the 11-yr solar
cycle between 105 and 101° particles/cm2 per year.
The integrated flux of galactic particles is more
constant, at about 108 particles/cm2 per year.
These primary solar and galactic particles are almost
completely attenuated as they penetrate the atmosphere
down to an altitude of about 20 km (65,600 it). However,
as they pass through an increasingly dense atmosphere,
they undergo nuclear interactions. Hence, at the
altitude of 20 km only 50X of the original protons, 25%
of the original alpha particles, and 3% of the heavier
nuclei are left. But there is a buildup of secondary
particles--neutrons, protons, and piano. Further plan
decay produces electrons, photons, and muons. As a
result, there is a cosmic-radiation maximum at 20 km. A
net attenuation in particle flux density occurs at lower
altitudes, reducing both the number and the energy of
secondary particles produced. At altitudes below 6 km
(19,700 it), muons and associated decay electrons are
the dominant components of the cosmic-ray particle flux.
Figure 5-2 illustrates the components of cosmic-radiation
dose equivalent rates as a function of altitude.
Secondary particles react with tissue through
several mechanisms, including ionization (stripping of
electrons) and direct inelastic and elastic collisions
with nuclei. Both protons and gamma rays can interact
with electrons and cause ionization of molecular
structures in tissue. The heavier neutrons can have
elastic collisions with lighter elements in tissue.
Because of the abundance of the hydrogen nucleus in
tissue, it is the most likely target nucleus for elastic
scattering. Some of the energy is lost as gamma photons
in inelastic collisions with heavier target nuclei. In
both types of collisions, the now-energized target
nucleus penetrates tissue as an ionizing particles Like
directly ionizing proton particles, these recoil protons
are massive, compared with electrons, and dissipate
energy over a relatively short path. Thus, the biologic
effectiveness of radiation depends on the characteristics
of the radiation, and not only on its energy. Because
OCR for page 121
121
103:
1 o2 1 _
LLl' 1 0
a:
a:
LL
in
o
m 10°
cr
o
cn
10
10-2
Total
~ Electrons
it/
//
0 5 1Q 15 20
Protons
Neutrons
\ Muons
~ Pions
1 1 1 1 1
25 30
ALTITUDE, km
FIGURE 5-2 Absorbed dose rates at depth of
5 cm in 30-cm-thick slab of tissue from
various components of cosmic radiation at
solar minimum and at geomagnetic latitude
of 55 degrees N. Reprinted with permission
from National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements.l09
muons and associated fast electrons are essentially
unattenuated by the body, the dose equivalent rate, in
millirems per hour, as a function of altitude is
determined essentially by the flux of protons and fast
neutrons. The flux rates for fast neutrons at various
altitudes are shown in Figure 5-3.
The dose equivalent rate of cosmic radiation in
millirems per hour as a function of altitude is
illustrated in Figure 5-4. The equivalent dose _ _
temporally (with time of maximal solar activity) and
OCR for page 122
122
1.2:
1.0
0.8
Cat
C,
-
O 0.6
A_
c,
v,
~ 0.4
J
0.2
o
/
I , I ~ I , I l I ~Thousands of Feet
0 20 40 60 80 100
~1
0 5
1 0 1 5 20 25 30
ALTITUDE
Ki iometers
FIGURE 5-3 Altitude profile of atmospheric
neutron flux. Adapted from Schaefer.1 31
with latitude. The spatial and temporal variations have
been determined from several direct-measurement programs
conducted during the late 1960s and early 1970s. At
altitudes typical of subsonic commercial aircraft,
9-12 km (29,500-39,400 ft), the cosmic-ray dose
equivalent rate is approximately 100 times the rate at
sea level. The newer, higher-performance aircraft are
certified to 46,000 ft (14 km). The cosmic-ray dose
equivalent rate at 14 km is nearly twice the rate at
10 km (32,800 it).
Variation in solar activity and the interaction of
charged particles in the earth's magnetic field result
in higher cosmic-radiation flux at higher latitudes and
during solar flares. Figure 5-5 illustrates the profiles
of dose equivalent rates by altitude, latitude, and
solar-flare activity.
OCR for page 123
123
loo
-
CJ
6
it
J
>
UJ lo 1
co
o
~_~
0 4 8 12 16
ALTITUDE, km
20 24
FIGURE 5-4 Total cosmic-ray dose equivalent rate
at 5-cm depth in 30-cm slab of tissue at gammam
= 55 degrees N (- ~ and 43 degrees N (-----)
at solar minimum (upper curve) and solar maximum
(lower curve). Quality factors for neutrons as
function of energy are included in calculations.
Reprinted with permission from National Council
on Radiation Protection and Measurements.109
EXPOSURE OF PASSENGERS AND CREW
From Figure 5-5, it is relatively easy to estimate
the dose equivalent exposure for a particular flight or
for an individual. A 5-h trans-Atlantic flight at
midlatitude and an altitude of 12 km (39,400 ft) might
result in an equivalent whole-body dose of 2.5 mrems.
If the same flight goes over the pole during a time of
more intense solar activity, the dose equivalent might
be 10 mrems. In general, the hourly dose rate at a jet
cruising altitude is approximately 100 times the ground-
level rate. A person who lived near sea level would
have to spend about 200-600 h/yr at cruising altitude to
double his or her exposure to cosmic radiation.
OCR for page 179
179
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
carbon monoxide
