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1
PROFILE OF COMMERCIAL AIR TRAVEL
This chapter provides background information on
aspects of commercial air travel pertinent to the study
of airliner cabin air quality. The study of cabin air
quality must take into account both routine flights and
emergency situations. Therefore, this chapter presents
statistics regarding routine travel--including data on
passengers, flight and cabin crews, and aircraft--and
enumerates the mayor types of emergencies that affect
air quality, including smoke, fumes, fire, explosion,
and depressurizatlon.
PASSENGERS
For most Americans, exposure to an airliner cabin
environment is infrequent and brief, although 70% of
American adults have flown at least once. According to
a Gallup survey conducted in the summer of 1985, 28X of
American adults had flown in the preceding 12 months;
14% had taken only one trip, and 1X, 10 or more.6
Of those who flew in the 12 months before the survey,
50YO had taken only one trip and 5X, 10 or more (see
Table 1-1~. Passenger demographic data appear in
Table 1-2.
In 1984, 343,264,000 passenger enplanements occurred
on U.S. scheduled airlines, for a total of
304,458,727,000 revenue passenger miles.2 Figure 1-1
illustrates passenger enplanements projected through
1996; Figure 1-2 shows historical and projected
passenger load factors. Table 1-3 lists numbers of
passengers carried and total revenue miles by selected
airliner in 1984.
24
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25
TABLE 1-1
Frequency of Flying Among the General Public, 1985a
No. Trips in % of Adult
Preceding 12 Months Population
% of Airline
Passengers
1 14 49.8
2 7 22.8
3 2 8.0
4-6 3 11.4
7-9 1 3.1
10+ 1 4.9
Total 28 100.0
.
a Data from Gallup.6
TABLE 1-2
Demographic Characteristics of Airline Passengers,
1984a
Proportion of
Descriptor Passengers, X
Age group:
<18 11 27
18-24 10 13
25-34 21 17
35-44 23 13
45_54 16 9
55-64 10 9
65+ 9 12
Sex:
Male 54 49
Female 46 51
Proportion of UeSe
Population, Xb
a Data from U.S. Travel Data Center:5 and U.S. Bureau
of the Census.~°
b Based on 1983 estimates.
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26
600
500
400
300
200
100
o
_ International
_
1~///~ Domestic
_
~E?
1984 1986 1988 1990
FISCAL YEAR
1992 1994
1 996
FIGURE 1-1 Scheduled passenger enplanements on U.S.
certificated air carriers. Reprinted from U.S.
Federal Aviation Administration.
74
Historical
70
66
58
54
50
.. .
V..~-..-
.
1
~ ,
..
Forecast
International
_ . - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~
Domestic
,
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
FISCAL YEAR
FIGURE 1-2 Passenger load factor on U.S. certificated
air carriers. Reprinted from U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration.
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27
TABLE 1-3
Airline Passengers and Passenger Miles Flown, 1984a
Passengers,
thousands
Revenue Passenger
Miles, thousands
United 41,01046,037,064
Eastern 38,08129,359,288
Delta 37,34127,040,102
American 34,12336,702,296
Trans World 18,48728,296,956
US Air 17,0478,190,589
Republic IS, 1778,509,948
Piedmont 14,2746,227,641
Pan American 13,91328,066,826
Northwest 13,21619,772,356
Southwest 12,0524,669,435
People Express 11,7757,770,945
Continental 11,11510,923,395
Western 10,6389,396,580
Pacific Southwest 7,8303,047,338
Frontier 7,0484,464,168
Ozark 4,9492,693,866
Air Cal 3,9901,548,506
Hawaiian 3,022403,857
New York Air 2,793937,102
Alaska 2,5431,841,212
American West 2,3981,247,134
Aloha 2,346392,421
Braniff 2,1761,885,619
Muse 1,980925,083
Northeastern 1,6551,652,119
Midway 1,464747,428
World 1,4103,889,001
a Data from Air Transport Association of America.2
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28
FLIGHT ATTENDANTS
FLIGHT CREW
The populations mostiexposed to the aircraft
environment are flight attendants and flight crew
members. These two groups, however, are exposed to
different conditions. Flight attendants spend almost
all their time in the passenger cabin and galleys, and
the flight crew spend almost all their time in the
cockpit. The cockpit and passenger cabin are ventilated
separately, and the former has a much higher air-
exchange rate and hence generally cleaner air.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) restricts
most pilots to a maximum of loo h of flight time per
month, 5 and labor contracts impose an even lower
limit. The flight time of cabin crew is not regulated,
although the Association of Flight Attendants (AFA) has
petitioned FAA for rule-making to establish maximal duty
hours and minimal hours of rest.3 In 1984, 80X of
flight attendants flew 70-85 h/mo.9
The average age of airline pilots is 41.5 yr, and
their average length of employment with their current
airline is 12-13 yr, according to data from the FAA
Civil Aeromedical Institutel 3 and the Air Line
Pilots Association (personal communication, 1985~.
Flight attendants have a median age of 34 yr (see Table
1-4), with 22% under 30; their average length of
employment with their current airline is around 15 yr.
Although 99% of pilots are men, 85% of flight attendants
are women; 61% of flight attendants are married, and 43X
have children.8 9 13
THE U.S. AIRLINE-INDUSTRY
When gathering or reporting information on the
nation's air carriers, FAA distinguishes between
certificated route air carriers, which operate under the
ruler of Title 14, Part 121, of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR 121~4 and hold certificates of
public convenience and necessity, and commuters or air
taxis, which operate under 14 CFR 135.1
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29
TABLE ~ 4
Demographic Characteristics of Flight Attendants, 19858
D.~griDtor
Age, vr:
<26
26-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50+
Ro. years
employed with
current airline:
<1
1-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
>20
Race:
Black
Asian
Hispanic
White
Other
Proportion
of AFA Members, %
15
29
30
13
4
2
10
13
22
22
23
10
86
3
Highest education
achieved:
High-school graduate 16
Some college 22
2 yr of college 24
4 yr of college 32
Some graduate school 4
Postgraduate degree 2
Average monthly
hours flown, 1984
<70
70-74
75-79
80-85
>8S
L
12
18
28
34
8
a Data from Peter D. Hart Research Associates.9
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30
In 1984, there were 67 certificated air carriers; 47
were engaged in scheduled air carrier services, and the
remainder provided nonscheduled (mainly charter)
services. FAA classifies Part 121 airlines according to
their annual operating revenues. A mayor airline has
annual operating revenues of over $1 billion; a national
airline, $75 million-$1 billion; a large regional
airline, $10-$75 million; and a medium regional airline,
less than $10 million.
In 1984, the 11 mayor U.S. airlines accounted for
67.4% of scheduled domestic enplanements and 79% of
scheduled domestic revenue passenger miles (compared
with 96% in 1978, before deregulation). National
carriers accounted for 23.3X of scheduled domestic
enplanements in 1984. The large and medium regional
airlines carried 3.8% of the travelers.11 12
Figure 1-3 characterizes the U.S. commercial
aircraft fleet by mayor aircraft type. Table 1-5 lists
the major aircraft used by U.S. certificated air
carriers projected through 1987. Wide-body aircraft
(B-747, B-767, A-300, DC-10 and L-1011) accounted for
43% of the total capacity in 1984 (Table 1-6~. Four
aircraft models (B-727, DC-9, B-737, and DC-8) accounted
for an additional 53%. The remaining seating capacity
was primarily on medium or large models being phased
into or out of the market and on small aircraft. Flight
time and total seating capacity for U.S. airlines in
1984 are presented by aircraft type in Table 1-6.
In 1984, the approximately 175 commuter airlines
carried 5.5% of the passengers and accounted for 1.1X of
the total revenue passenger miles. 12 Of the
aircraft used by commuter airliner in 1984, 77.5X had
fewer than 20 seats. Because small aircraft
account for a very small percentage of the total revenue
passenger miles flown and ventilation rater on small
aircraft are generally much higher than on larger
planes, this study does not address in any detail the
problems associated with air quality in there aircraft.
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31
4000
3000
A:
cat
-
2000
C
:
1000
n
2 Engine Wide-Body
35%
>I
l ~
-
2 Eng WB
3 Eng We
_
| 4 Eng WB
2 Eng NB
3 Eng NB
Eng NB
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
CALENDAR YEARS
4 Engine Wide-Body 5.3%
I_
1984
)~ 3 Engine Wide-Body
9.9% 1
2 Engine Wide-Body 3%
\p 4 Engine Narrow-Body
~/ 5.9%
3 Engine Narrow-Body
40.9%
~ .
1995 1996
/
2 Engine Narrow-Body
53.5% 4 Engine Wide-Body 6.6%
engine Wide-Body 7.4%
/ / \, 2 Engine wide-Body
1 / / A\ 12.8%
4 Engine Narrow Body
3%
,_~/3 Engine Narrow-Body
16.7%
1 996
FIGURE 1-3 Large jet aircraft in U.S. commercial airline
service. Reprinted from U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration.
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32
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33
TABLE 1-6
Flight Time and Exposure of Public on U.S. Airliners, 1984a
Est. Ave. Seat-hours,
No. in Seating Total Plight thousands
Manufacturer Modelb Fleet CeDacitv Time, h (% of total)
Boeing 8-7271-,161 1202,990,821 358,899 (27.72)
Boeing B-747156 452537,142 242,788 (18.75)
McDonnell Douglas DC-9594 1151,438,339 165,409 (12.77)
McDonnell Douglas DC-10174 310487,831 151,228 (11.68)
Boeing B-737391 1201,006,238 120,749 (9.32)
Lockheed L-1011103 300308,180 92,454 (7.14)
Boeing B-76753 250172,705 43,176 (3.33)
McDonnell Douglas DC-8157 150270,728 40,609 (3.14)
Airbus A-30038 280101,143 28,320 (2.19)
Boeing B-75719 20050,022 10,004 (0.77)
British Aerospace BAC-11133 10059,555 5,955 (0.46)
British Aerospace BAE-14614 10014,140 1,414 (0.11)
Boeing B-70722 14539,243 5,690 (0.44)
de Havilland DHC-746 50106,287. 5,314 (0.41)
de Havilland DHC-6107 20176,233 3,525 (0.27)
Beechcraft BE-9985 15199,205 2,988 (0.23)
turbo
Fokker F-2823 7033,036 2,313 (0.18)
Fairchild F-2723 4435,521 1,563 (0.12)
Fokker F-2714 5625,056 1,403 (0.11)
Piper PA-31110 10114,330 1,143 (0.09)
Cessna C-402112 6166,914 1,001 (0.08)
...
Fairchild F-2279 4817,053 819 (0.06)
a Data from U.S. Federal Aviation Administration.l2
b Includes models with seat-hours greater than O.O1X of total.
FAA DATA ON SELECTED INCIDENTS
Commercial air carriers are required to report each
accident or incident that involves a threat to the
airworthiness of an aircraft or to the safety of
passengers. The reports are recorded in the FAA
Accident/Incident Data System. Table 1-7 summarizes the
sources of in-flight fires and explosions, ground fires,
and occurrences of cabin smoke from 1980 to 1985, and
Table 1-8 summarizes emergency descents and deployments
of oxygen masks in the same period (see Appendix B for
complete listings from the FAA Accident/Incident Data
System). Table 1-9 summarizes incidents that involved
smoke or fumes in cockpits and cabins in 1974-1983,
according to a separate data base, the FAA Civil
Aeromedical Institute's Cabin Safety Data Bank.
Emergency situations are discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 4.
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34
TABLE 1-7
- In-Flight Fires and Explosions,
Ground Fires, and Cabin Smoke, 1980-1985a
No. In-Fllght No. Reported
Fires or Explosions Incidents of
Source of Accident or Incident and On-Ground [ires Cabin Smoke
Mechanical failure (including 38 30
engines, landing gear,
air conditioning, etc.)
Electric malfunction 5 20
(including navigation,
communication, and
control instruments, etc.)
Food-service galley 2 5
(except ovens and food)
Ovens or food 3 5
Passenger cabin: cigarettes 4 1
and lighters
Passenger cabin: other 1 2
(including lighting,
pro] actors, speakers, etc.)
Lavatories: paper And waste
chutes
4
1
Lavatories: other 5 O
Cargo compartment 1 -
Deicing malfunctions
(e.g., deicing fluid)
Other
3
4
Undetermined - 4
Total 63 75
a Data from FAA Accident/Incident Data System (AIDS). See
Appendix B.
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35
TABLE 1-8
Emergency Descents and
Deployment of Oxygen Masks, 1980-1985a
Cause of Incid
Engine malfunction (e.g., bleed-air
ports, turbine failure, power loss,
fire warning system, and fire)
Ventilation system failure (e.g.,
air-conditioning turbine, ducting,
outflow valve, and water separator)
Control equipment malfunction
(e.g., electric panel, fire
prevention system, pressure
controller, and broken wire)
Landing gear malfunction (e.g.,
hydraulic fluid loss)
. .
Medical (e.g., passenger illness or
flight crew member unconscious)
No.
Incidents
8
14
23
1
2
Other (e.g., hydraulic flap failure, 6
burst water tank, wiring pylon
cracked, bird in valve, fuselage
skin fatigue, and bomb threat)
Unknown or unclassified
Total
a Data from the FAA Accldent/Incident Data
System (AIDS).14 See Appendix B.
17
71
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36
TABLE 1-9
Incidents Involving Smoke or Fumes in Cabin or Cockpit, 1974-1983a
No. Incidents No. Incidents No. Incidents
with Emergency with No Emergency with Unlmowst Total No.
YearLanding Declared Landing Status Incidents
19749 2 7 18
197511 1 4 16
197614 1 7 22
197711 8 2 21
197813 2 2 17
197919 3 2 24
198017 4 0 21
19819 7 1 17
198210 5 5 20
198317 9 4 30
Total130 42 34 206
a Data from Higgins.7
REFERENCES
1. Air taxi operators and commercial operators. Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Pt. 135.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1985.
2. Air Transport Association of America. Air
Transport 1985: The Annual Report of the U.S.
Scheduled Airline Industry. Washington, D.C.: Air
Transport Association of America, 1985.
3.
Association of Flight Attendants. Petition of
Proposed Rule Making. 1985. (unpublished)
4. Certification and operations: Domestic, flag and
Supplemental air carriers and commercial operators
of large aircraft. Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 14, Pt. 121. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1985.
5. Flight time limitations: All flight crewmembers.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Pt.
121.471. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1985.
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37
6. Gallup Organization, Inc. 1985 Air Travel
Survey. Washington, D.C.: Air Transport
Association of America, 1985.
7. Higgins, E. A. Protective breathing: Oxygen mask
use/problems, pp. 61-65. In Flight Safety
Foundation, Inc. Proceedings of Cabin Safety
Conference and Workshop, December 11-14, 1984.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration, Office of Aviation Safety, 1985.
8. Joint Council of Flight Attendants Unions. About
the Joint Council. (unpublished communication,
1985)
9. Peter D. Hart Research Associates, Inc.
Membership Survey, Association of Flight
Attendants. 1985. (unpublished)
10. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract
of the United States, 1985. 105th ed.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1984.
11. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. FAA
Aviation Forecasts, Fiscal Years 1985-1996.
FAA-APO-85-2. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal
Aviation Administration, 1985.
12. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. FAA
Statistical Handbook of Aviation, Calendar Year
1984. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration, 1985.
13. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Civil
Aeromedical Institute, Aeromedical Certification
Branch. 1984 Aeromedical Certification
Statistical Handbook. AC 8500-1. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, 1985.
14. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Safety
Analysis Division. Analyses Performed 3 Dec. 1985
and 6 Jan. 1986 Using Accident/Incident Data
System (AIDS) for Committee on Airliner Cabin Air
Quality. (computer printouts)
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38
15. D.S. Travel Data Center. Hation.1 Travel Survey:
1984 Full Year Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Travel Data Center, 1985.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
federal aviation
