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OCR for page 207
Index
A
Accountants and bookkeepers
impacts of technological change on, 32,
38-40, 172
minorities employed as, 92
number of, 3, 4, 38-40, 91, 94
projected growthin, 114, 116, 121, 123
sex stratification of, 20, 40
unionization of, 38-39
Administrative support occupations
female employment by race/ethnic origin,
93-95
number of workers in, 4-5, 67
sex ratios in, 4-5
see also Clerical employment/occupations;
and specific occupations
AFL-CIO Committee on the Evolution of
Work, 17
Agriculture
clerical staffing ratios, 96-97, 103
degrees awarded to women in, 78
displacement of workers, 1, 15, 82
employment growth in, 102
occupational groups of women employed i
18
American Association for Medical Systems
and Informatics, 57
American Nurses' Association Council on
Computer Applications in Nursing, 57
in.
207
Asian-Americans, clerical work force, 92-95
Association for the Development of
Computer-Based Instructional
Systems, 57
AT&T
EEOC consent decree, 28
technology-change committees, 29, 163
Automobile manufacturing, productivity and
employment in, 15
B
Baby boom cohorts, effect on labor markets,
16,69,79
Bank tellers
career mobility, 46
employment trends of, 46-48, 88-90,
115-116, 120, 172
female employment by race/ethnic origin,
95
number of, 3, 5, 90
Banking
computerization of, 9, 35, 44-48, 138, 155,
157, 164-165
educational requirements in, 47-48
employment growth, 13, 47, 59, 97-100,
106, 118
female employment in, 13, 45-46
occupational shifts in, 46, 48
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208
structural change in, 44-48, 106
see also Financial industry
Barriers to employment, 43, 85-86, 169
see also Equal employment opportunity
laws; Sex segregation in employment
Bell, Alexander G., 26
Blacks
in administrative support occupations, 43,
93-95
educational attainments, 77
family responsibilities of, 19
labor force participation rates, 69, 92
negative effects of automation on, 43
shifts in employment, 1
see also Minorities
Bureau of Labor Statistics
classification of occupations, 66, 138- 139
employment projections, 63, 71, 104- 117,
123-125, 143, 180
female labor force participation rates, 74
Bureau of the Census, classification of
occupations, 66, 68, 143
C
Career ladders/mobility
in banking, 46
in insurance industry, 42-44
job segregation effects on, 19, 22
Career opportunities
expansion of, for women, 173- 175
policies affecting, 64, 66, 68
Cashiers
growth of employment of, 32, 49-50, 52,
88,90, 104, 107-108, 111-112, 118, 123
number of, 3, 90
quality of jobs for, 135
reclassification of, 3, 49-50, 107
sex segregation of, 19-20, 40, 50, 51
Child care, 69-70, 145
Childbearing, 69-70, 72-73
Clerical employment/occupations
back-office jobs, 22, 41, 119, 126
declines in, 89, 106
definition, 2-3
demographic trends, 89-96
factors affecting future of, 64, 106
fastest-growing industries for, 106
fastest-growingjobs, 118
in financial industry, 16, 45-46, 63, 92, 96,
103
INDEX
geographic trends, 92
growth by industry, 96-103
growth, 21, 86-89, 90-91, 96-111, 167
in health industry, 54-58, 99-100
historical patterns in, 32-61
innovations influencing, 32-34; see also
Innovations/inventions; Word processing
in insurance industry, 13, 16, 40-44, 59,
82, 92, 137
with largest negative employment changes,
119-121
with largest number of workers, 3, 88
with largest projected job growth for
women, 121- 122
minority representation in, 42-43, 54, 69,
89-90
projections, 21, 47, 70-73, 79-83,
103-126, 174-175
recession effects on, 87, 92, 97, 99, 124
shifts in, 88-89, 111-123, 173; see also
Occupational shifts
sources of change in, 96- 103
staffingratio changes, 93-103, 106,
110-119
telecommuting, 144-147
see also Administrative support
occupations; and specific occupations
Collective bargaining, see Unions
Commission of the European Communities,
implementation of technology, 160- 161
Committee on Science, Engineering, and
Public Policy, 81, 171
Computer operators
employment levels, 3, 4-5, 21, 83, 88,
111-112, 118, 120-121, 123
minorities employed as, 92-93
Computers /c ompu te rizatio n
in banking, 9, 35, 44-48, 138, 155, 157,
164-165
in communications industry, 9-10, 27-28
data entry technologies, 8
diffusion of, 7-8, 11, 39, 64
early business applications, 39
electronic mail, 9, 128
employment effects, see Employment
effects of technological change
in financial industries, 103, 124
in health industry, 54-58
in insurance industry, 13, 40-43, 59, 82,
136- 137
output and display technologies, 9
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INDEX
projected developments in, 10
projected needs for, 12
resistance to, 8, 55
in retail industry, 49, 51
storage and processing, 8-9
system compatibility and interconnection, 9;
see also Networking
see also Office automation;
Telecommunications;
Telecommuting/telework; Word
processing
Current Population Survey (CPS),
occupational classifications, 66-67, 89,
124
Customer service representatives
employment rates, 15, 112, 114
in insurance industry, 42
integration of jobs by, 137
D
Data entry operators, employment levels, 95,
117-119
Demographic trends
in clerical employment, 89-96
in labor force, 68-74, 79-81
Department stores, see Retail industry
Deskilling
contradictory impressions of, 136- 143
of secretarial work, 17, 35, 137
as way of entry for disadvantaged workers,
142
see also Job content; Quality of
employment; Skill level changes
Dictionary of Occupational Titles,
occupational classifications, 66-67.
138-139
Discrimination, see Barriers to employment;
Equal employment opportunity laws; Sex
segregation in employment
E
Earnings and wages
bookkeepers, 38
compensation for newskills, 131, 149
educational attainment and, 149
effects of technological change on, 83
of home-based workers, 147
job segregation effects on, 19
losses on reemployment, 124-125
productivity and, 149
209
sex ratio in, 18- 19, 80
supermarket workers, 52
Economic conditions and considerations
female employment and, 65, 80, 87
growth and employment, 1, 13- 14, 21, 59,
65, 80, 104
quality of employment, 148- 157
see also Recessions
Educational attainment
advanced degrees awarded to women, 79
by birth cohort, 76
by fields of study, 77-79, 169
by gender, 77-78
by race/ethnic origin, 77-78
wages and, 149
Educational needs and requirements
in banking, 47
in insurance industry, 44
job transition programs, 176
forminority women, 126, 171, 176
in nursing, 53, 58
for occupations with largest job growth, 123
recommendations of panel regarding,
169-172
to respond to occupational shifts, 81, 169
Educationally disadvantaged
effect of technological change on, 13,44, 47
programs for, 171
Effective Technical and Human
Implementation of Computer-Based
Systems (ETHICS), 161
Employment
clerical, see Clerical
employment/occupations
discrimination in, see Barriers to
employment; Equal employment
opportunity laws; Sex segregation in
employment
displacement, see Job displacement
government, see Government employment,
federal and state and local
at home, see Home work;
Telecommuting/telework
levels, see Levels of employment
participation, see Participation in labor force
projections, see Projections
quality, see Quality of employment;
Working conditions
rates, see Labor force participation rates;
Occupational staffing ratios; Projections;
and specific industries and occupations
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210
security of, see Job security; Job tenure;
Layoffs
shifts in, see Occupational shifts
of women, see Women's employment
see also Unemployment
Employment effects of technological change
computerization, 8, 10, 39, 43, 52, 54, 83,
109, 118, 157, 173-174
demand for workers, 81-88
images of, 13-14, 127-129
measures of, 11, 14-15, 167-168
negative, 11, 16-17, 39, 43, 52, 54, 60,
83-84, 128, 173-176
positive, 11, 17, 37-38, 82, 128
sex differential, 18-23, 32-48, 125- 126,
168-169
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
consent decree with AT&T, 28
Equal employment opportunity laws
effects on women's employment
opportunities, 64-65
recommendations of panel on importance of
enforcement, 173-175
Equitable Life Assurance Society of the
United States, contract for advance notice
of automation, 44
Ergonomics, 147-148, 151-153, 155-156,
177-179; see also Video display terminals
F
Family responsibilities, 19, 22-23, 145- 147,
171
Financial industry
clerical staffing ratios, 96-97, 103
geographic trends in employment, 92
growth in employment, 15-16, 63, 92,
102-103
technological effects on employment, 15,
103, 124
see also Banking
G
Government employment, federal and state
and local
clerical declines, 92, 102- 103
displacement in, 124
growth in, 15-16, 97, 100, 106
staffing ratios, 96-98, 110
Growth, economic, see Economic conditions
and considerations; Projections;
Recessions
INDEX
H
Health industry
clerical employment growth in, 98- 100, 106
computerization of, 54-58
medical diagnostic systems, 8, 55-58
medical informatics, 55
structural changes and employment growth,
52, 58, 106
see also Nurses/nursing
Hispanics
educational attainments, 77
family responsibilities, 19
labor force participation rates, 69, 92
see also Minorities
Home work, 22, 144- 147
Honeywell Corporation, survey of office
automation reactions, 132-134
Hunt and Hunt studies, 1, 8, 14, 21, 34, 43,
46, 63, 65, 67, 83, 86-109, 112-118
I
Implementation of technology
adaptation to, 75, 169, 175- 177
advance notice of, 31, 44, 160, 162- 163,
173
in banking, 35, 47, 155, 164- 165
choices in, 12, 59-60, 156- 166
clerical workers' influence in, 152
constraints on, 59-60, 148- 157, 174, 176
design space concepts 160-161
employee participation programs, 152,
- 178-179
employment effects of, see Employment
effects of technological change
government role in, 170
guidelines and planning for, 6, 27-28, 35,
37, 47, 136, 153-154, 164-165, 177-178
in health care industry, 57-58
historical patterns, 24-61
in insurance industry, 136
management dominance and role in,
151-154
negative effects of, 11, 16-17, 19, 22, 28,
39, 43, 52, 54, 60, 83-84, 89, 103, 109,
111, 119, 128, 157, 169, 173-176
bynoncomputer professionals, 136
Norwegian Bank Employees Union (BNF)
example of, 164-165
positive effects of, 1-2, 6-11, 17, 36-38,
82, 103, 128, 157, 164-165, 169-170
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INDEX
recommendations of panel regarding,
177-179
union involvement in, 153, 162- 165
women's participation in, 54-58, 151-153,
158-159, 164-165, 178
worker participation in, 158- 162
Innovations/ inventions
skill-level changes, 137-139, 142
suburbanization of jobs, 92
International Medical Informatics
Association, 58
Job content
attributes of, 130
fragmentation, 136-139, 149
levels of analysis, 139- 140
reorganization and reintegration, 42, 137,
167
routinization, 138- 139
stages of technology, 139- 140
variety in, 130, 140
see also Deskilling; Job satisfaction; Quality
of employment; Skill-level changes
assembly line, 11
automatic dialing, 27-28
automatic teller machines, 45, 106, 118
bank credit cards, 45
Burroughs adding machine, 32
diffusion of, 7-8, 10-11, 24-27, 39, 64,
109, 170, 174
electronic funds transfer, 45
employment declines from, 83
intelligent cash registers, 49, 51, 111, 135
magnetic ink character recognition, 45 Job displacement
medical monitoring and patient care
systems, 8, 55-58
optical character readers, 8, 119
phonograph and radio, 12
punched card and counter-sorter, 32
replacing human interaction, 118
scanning technologies, 8, 49, 135
tabulating machines, 89
telemedicine, 56-57
telephone, 25-29; see also
Telecommunications; Telephone
operators
typesetting equipment, 30-31; see also
Printing and publishing
typewriter, 32
Xerox photocopy method, 6
see also Computers/computerization;
Employment effects of technological
change; Telecommunications; Word
processing
Insurance industry
automation of claims procedures, 43, 137
career ladders/mobility in, 42, 43-44
computerization of, 13, 40-43, 59, 82,
136-137
employment effects of automation, 40-44,
63, 82
female employment in, 13, 41, 44
growth of employment in, 13, 15- 16, 40,
43,90,95,98-100, 112-113, 118, 134
historical patterns of technological change
in, 40-44
job integration in, 42
211
of agriculturalworkers, 15
in clerical work, 62, 124- 125
due to shifts in demand, 84, 172
due to technological advances, 59, 172
geographic mobility and, 86, 167
see also Earnings and wages; Employment
effects of technological change; Location
of work; Unemployment
Job integration in insurance industry, 42
Job satisfaction
influences on, 150
office automation effects on, 129, 132-136,
168
surveys of, 132-136, 149, 168
worker implementation of technology and,
136, 158
Job security
advance notice of implementation of new
technology, 31, 44, 160, 162- 163, 173
agreements, 31, 44
effects oftechnology on, 131, 135, 142
recommendations of panel regarding,
172-173
ways for employers to provide, 149- 150
Job segregation, see Sex segregation in
employment
Job tenure, 75; see also Job security;
Work-life expectancy
K
Kelly Services, survey of office automation
reactions, 132-133, 149
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212
L
Labor force growth, projections, and size, see
Participation in labor force; Projections
Labor force participation rates
accuracy, 70
by age, 72-74
by gender and race, 71-72
in male-dominated occupations, 125
projections, 68-72, 174
see also Participation in labor force
Layoffs, advance notice of, 29; see also Job
security
Leontief-Duchin studies, 1,62, 108-111
Levels of employment
productivity growth and, 15- 17
sources of change in, 16, 25
see also Clerical employment/occupations;
Employment effects of technological
change; Participation in labor force;
Occupational shifts; Projections;
Unemployment
Location of work
constraints on women, 22, 44, 86
effects of technology on, 11
geographic trends, 92
see also Job displacement; Unemployment,
structural
M
Management/managers
constraints on, in implementation of
technology, 154- 157
effects of technological change on, 150
employment growth for, 109
female percentage, 152
reintegration of jobs of, 137-138
role in implementation of technology, 37,
151-152
Minolta Corporation/Professional Secretaries
International, survey of office automation
reactions, 132-134
Minorities
education and, 77-78
negative effects of technology on, 16- 17,
19,22,54, 169
representation in clerical occupations,
42-43, 54, 91-92
see also Asian-Americans; Blacks;
Hispanics
INDEX
Monitoring employee performance, 17, 27,
44, 128, 131, 143-144
N
National League on Nursing, 57-58
National Research Council
Board on Telecommunications and
Computer Applications, 145
Committee on the Effective Implementation
of Advanced Manufacturing
Technologies, 153
Committee on National Statistics, 14
Committee on Vision, 130, 147-148, 179
Networking, 9, 64, 174
9-to-5, survey of job stress among women,
132-134, 144, 151
Nurses/nursing
educational programs and trends, 53, 55
effects of technology on, 54-58
implementation of technology, 54-58,
158-159
minority employment, 54
numbers of, 52-53, 123
sex differentials in, 53-54
stress in, 55-56
unemployment rates, 53, 58
o
Occupational Employment Statistics (OES),
67, 111
Occupational shifts
in banking, 46
in clerical work, 88-89
education, training, and retraining for,
170-172
in health industry, 58
in insurance industry, 42
from manufacturing to service, 15-16
projections for, 111-123, 173
in retail industry, 49-50
in telecommunications industry, 28
Occupational staffing ratios
clerical variation across industries, 96-103
negative effects of changes in, 118- 119
ranking of clerical occupations by, 111 - 117
relative effects of, 106, 110-111
Occupations
classification of, 60-61, 66, 68, 107,
109-110, 138-139, 142-143
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INDEX
withlargestjobgrowth, 122-123, 142
reallocation of functions among, 82; see
also Occupational shifts
sources of change in size of, 96
see also Clerical employment/occupations,
and specific occupations
Office automation
impact on clerical employment, 21, 63, 107,
118, 137-138
job satisfaction and, 129
productivity and, 36-37, 128
see also Computers/computerization;
Employment effects of technological
change; Ergonomics; Implementation of
technology; Innovations/inventions;
Quality of employment; Word processing
On-thejob training, sex segregation in, 22,
46, 171
Output, see Productivity
p
Part-time employment, increases in, 50-51
Participation in labor force
by age, 68, 72-73, 80
demand for workers, 81-83
educational attainment and, 75-79
factors affecting, 69-70, 79-81, 86
positive influences on, 69-70
by race/ethnic origin, 69
rates, 68-70; see also Labor force
participation rates
substitution for women workers, 80
supply of women workers, 68-79, 81, 125
see also Clerical employment/occupations;
Te lecommuti ng /te le work
Policy recommendations
adaptivejobtransitions, 177
data and research needs, 181
design, implementation, and application of
technology, 177-178
education, training, and retraining, 172
employment security and flexibility, 173
expansion of job opportunities, 175
hearth concerns, 179
worker participation in implementation of
technology, 178- 179
Postal clerks
employment levels, 21, 91, 94, 103,
117-118
minorities employed as, 92
2/3
Printing and publishing industries
clerical employment in, 91, 95, 98,
113-114
female work force, 30-31
historical patterns of technological change
in, 29-32
home-based workers, 145
innovations in, 30-31
job segregation in, 29-32
Productivity
employment levels and, 15- 17, 81 -82
gains from new technology, 64, 82-83, 109,
156-157, 174, 176
growth in, 13
innovations increasing, 14, 64
measures of, 14, 143-144
monitoring, 143-144
office automation and, 36-37, 82-83, 123
wages and, 149
Project on Connecticut Workers and
Technological Change, 128
Projections
accuracy of, 70
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 63, 71, 104- 117,
123-125, 143, 180
data availability for, 66-68, 179- 180
demand for workers, 81 -83, 174- 175
Hunt and Hunt, 103-109, 112-118
labor force participation rates, 70-73
labor supply, 79-81, 174
largest projected clerical job growth for
women, 121 - 122
Leontief-Duchin, 1, 62, 108- 111
levels of clerical employment, 21
occupational shifts in clerical work,
111-123
overall employment growth, 103- 111
of panel, 167-170, 172-175
problems in, 63-65, 69, 109- 110
unemployment, 83-86
women's wages, 18- 19
see also specific industries and occupations
Q
Quality of employment
assessment of, 67-68, 131 - 136
biases in assessing, 132- 136
changes in, see Deskilling; Skill-level
changes
concerns about, 17-18, 127-128
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214
criteria for assessing, 129-131
definition of, 129- 131
economic considerationsin, 131, 148-150,
154, 156-157; see also Job security
employer benefits in ensuring, 154- 155
equipment age and, 140
improvements in, 17, 44, 60
management's role in enhancement of,
153-154
occupational mix changes, 129
recommendations of panel for monitoring
hearth concerns, 179
sources of information on, 131-136
word processing effects on, 34, 140-141;
see also Office automation
see also Job content; Job satisfaction;
Working conditions
Quality ofEmployment Survey, 67, 131, 180
R
Recessions, employment effects of, 87, 92,
97, 99, 124
Recommendations, see Policy
recommendations
Retail industry
career opportunities, 51
cash register innovations and
computerization, 49, 51
clerical staffing ratios, 96-97
deskilling in, 52, 137
employment growth, 15, 50, 123
food sector trends, 49, 51-52
growth in clerical employment, 96-98,
101-102
occupational shifts, 49-50, 52
structural changes in, 48-49, 51 -52
turnover rates, 51
unionization, 51-52
S
Sales workers, see Cashiers
Seasonal employment, 51
Secretaries
blurring of lines between managers and, 11,
35
deskilling of, 17, 35, 137, 142
diverse duties of, 33
growth rates for, 90, 115, 118, 120-121
INDEX
number of, 3, 4, 33-34, 37-38, 67, 90, 93
replacement of by paraprofessionals, 35
word processing impacts on, 11, 34-37; see
also Office automation
see also Clerical employment/occupations
Service sector employment
clerical staffing ratios, 96
employment levels, 97
growth in, 13, 15- 16, 21, 102, 104
see also specific industries and occupations
Sex segregation in employment
career mobility end, 19
in data processing, 40
extent of, 19-20, 80
in on-thejob training, 22, 46
in printing and publishing, 29-31
in retail industry, 50
in wages, 18-19, 80
see also Barriers to employment; Equal
employment opportunity laws
Sex stereotypes, 22, 23
Shifts in employment, see Occupational shifts
Skill-level changes and mismatches, 17, 60,
82-83, 136-139, 141,168;seealso
Deskilling
Social Security Administration,
implementation of technology by, 157
Stenographers, employment levels, 4, 21, 83,
89,91,93, 118, 120
Swedish Act of Codetermination, 160
T
Tabulating machine operators, 89
Teachers' aides
growth in, 88, 90, 112, 120- 121
minority employment as, 92, 95
Telecommunications
automatic dialing, 27-28
automatic switching, 10, 27-28, 103
clerical employment in, 98; see also
Telephone operators
effects on information processing jobs, 10
equipment innovations, 9-10, 24-27
historical patterns of technological change
in, 25-29
occupational shifts in, 28, 89
productivity and employment in, 15
projected developments in, 10, 29
Telecommuting/telework, 144-147
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INDEX
Telephone operators
employment trends, 15, 27-28, 89, 91, 94,
103, 111, 117-118, 120
monitoring performance of, 17, 27
Temporary help industry, growth projections,
122
Training needs, 13, 172; see also Educational
needs and requirements; On-thejob
training
Turnover rates
department store industry, 51
women workers, 23, 27, 60-61, 171 Wages
Typists
growth rates, 88, 90, 116, 120
minorities employed as, 92-93
number of, 3, 4, 21, 90
see also Office automation
U
Unemployment
cyclical increases in, 16, 84-87, 109
projections, 83-86
public policy impacts on, 85
rates for nurses, 53
solutions to, 85, 175- 177
structural, 84-85, 111, 125
transitional, 175
types, 83-84
see also Job displacement
Unions
Communications Workers of America, 29
International Typographical Union, 30-31
negotiated technology agreements, 162
Norwegian Bank Employees Union,
164-165
Office and Professional Workers, 38
retail industry activities of, 51-52
role in adoption of new technology, 153,
160, 162-165
Service Employees International Union, 44 80
State, County, and Municipal Workers of
America, 39
technology change committees, 29, 163
United Federal Workers, 38
United Food and Commercial Workers,
51-52
women's access to, 22
Women's Trade Union League, 27
2~5
U.S. National Commission on Technology,
Automation, and Economic Progress,
16-17, 127
V
Video display terminals (VDTs), 17, 44, 68,
128, 134-135, 154, 156, 179; see also
Ergonomics
W
two-tier, collective bargaining for, 52
see also Earnings and wages
Wholesale trade, employment in, 97, 100,
102, 110, 123, 147-148
Women's employment
clerical occupations, see Clerical
employment/occupations, and specific
occupations
differential effects of technology on, 18-23,
32-48, 125-126, 168-169
earnings and wages, 18-19, 38, 80, 83
economic considerations in, 65, 80, 87
educational attainment and, 75-79,
169-170, 172
expansion of opportunities for, 64-65,
173-175; see also Barriers to employment
family responsibilities and, 19, 22-23,
145-147, 171
in financial industry, 40-44
in insurance industry, 52-58
location of work and, 22, 44, 86
in nursing, see Nurses/nursing
occupations with largest projected growth,
121-122
on-thejob training, 22, 46, 171
in printing and publishing, 29-32
by race/ethnic origin, 93-95
in retail trade, 50
sex segregation in, 19-20, 22, 29-31, 46,
stressin, 132-134, 144, 151
supply of workers, 68-79; see also Labor
force participation rates
in telecommunications, 25-29
turnover rates, 23, 27, 60-61, 171
in unions, see Unions
see also Participation in labor force;
Projections; and specific occupations
OCR for page 216
27d
-~ processing
~sdug use oF ~-67
classification of, 66
employment increases due 10,
gmenladon of jobs by, 137
impact on secmmdes, 11, 34-37
p~ducOvi~ impacts of, 36, 82, 109
social onion oF 139-1
vade1yofusksin, 140-141
~~e ~~o Ounce au10mad0n
Tier satisfaction, ~~e Job satisfaction
Hang conditions
heakhconcems, 134-13S, 1=, 147-148,
168, 179
home-based clerical wow, 143-147
physical 130, 147-148, 151-132, 154
aid, 13~131, 155
Mass, 17, 27, 55-56, 132-135, 1=
e ~~o Economist Honkohng employee
fiance; Qualm of e~loy~np
Video display 1e~inals
Hang amen Education Fund, 17
-~ expand, 75
Representative terms from entire chapter:
occupational shifts
