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CHAPTER 7
TEENAGE FATHERHOOD
Ross O. Parke and Br fan Neville
INTRODUCTI ON
The adolescent male has been ignored in previous reviews and dis-
cuss ions of adolescent pregnancy since teenage pregnancy and child-
bear ing has trad itionally been viewed as a female issue. This state
of affairs is part of a larger phenomenon, namely the relative prior
neglect of males in pregnancy, birth, and childrearing in general,
among all age g roups. The thesis of this chapter is that a full under-
stand ing of the impl teat ions and consequences of teenage pregnancy and
childbearing requires knowledge of the role of the male. To achieve
this aim, we will examine the male partners of teenage mothers in their
role as parents and explore tise determinants of assuming this role, and
the consequences for the male, his partner and offspring.
Reasons for Our Earlier Neglect of Adolescent Males
Many of the reasons for our prior neglect of adolescent fathers
have derived from our general lack of concern with the male role in
infancy and childhood. A variety of factors contributed to this s itua-
tion--theoretical models of infant development that have placed a pri-
mary emphasis on the mother-infant relationship, unfounded notions
about the ~ biolog teal preparedness of mothers in contrast to fathers,
and adherence to traditional models of father involvement and sex role
allocation, even in the face of considerable secular change (Parke and
Tinsley, 1984) . Social-structural and social pre judicial factors sped
cif tic to adolescent fathers also contribute to this neglect. Adoles-
cent fathers are often unmarried during the time of conception and
birth, and are generally excluded from participating in the birth and
early care of their infants. This is generally the result of the
powerful social prejudice that surrounds pregnancy and child birth
among unmarried teenagers (Sawin and Parke, 19761.
145
t
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146
Methodolog teal Problems in the Area
Before launching our discussion of the research in this area, it is
important to note that there are a set of general problems of method,
sampling, and design which plague many of the investigations in this
area.
( 1) Sampling: A ma jar ity of the studies of males use volunteer
samples which create serious interpretative problems due to subject
self-selection. Many of the samples are drawn from clinics or other
types of social agencies. Samples often tend to be too small to permit
adequate statistical analysis. Breakdowns are not often given about
the distr ibution of the sub jects ages across the full spectrum of
adolescence . Def in it ions of the adolescent age per iod var ies ac toss
stud ies with some using age 21 as an upper limit and others using age
19. In some cases, older ~ nonadolescent) males are included if their
female partner is an adolescent. Compar isons among studies are further
compl icated by the f act that race, mar ital status, and sac ioeconomic
status vary across studies.
(2 ~ Design: Many of the studies in this literature fail deco include
control groups of adolescents who are not fathers. Nor do many studies
include groups of nonadolescent fathers. The majority of studies are
cross- sectional, with few longitudinal studies represented in the
area.
~ 3 ~ Method: With few exceptions, the studies rely solely on ques-
tionnaires administered to fathers, sexually active males, or in some
cases to only their female partners. Many of the questionnaires have
unknown or poor psychometr ic properties. To date, little work based on
observations of fathers with either the mothe; and/or infant had been
exert ted.
BE SEARCH I SHOES IN UNDERSTANDING ADOLESCENT FATHERBOOD
Although in the vast ma jor Sty of cases fatherhood during adoles-
cence is unplanned and unexpected, many young men achieve fatherhood
status dur ing the adolescent years. I t is our assumption that the
adolescent male in his role as father has an impact on himself, his
partner, and his offspring. Moreover, the determinants of sexual
activity and contraceptive use which were reviewed in the other chaps
ters may provide little insight into another phase of the problem,
namely, adolescent fatherhood. Although the research is lionized and
flawed, it is important to review there issues in order to give better
guidance to prevention and intervention policy and programs.
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147
In Search of Personality Prof iles of Adolescent Marchers
A long-standing theoretical tradition within the sac ial sciences
is to explain behavioral outcomes in terms of psychosocial characteris-
tics of individuals. This search is in contrast to a perspective which
emphasizes situational or environmental restraints and processes as ex-
planatory modes. Many of ache stereotypes of adolescent fathers have
arisen, in part, due to our penchant for personalogical explanations.
Adolescent fathers have variously been viewed as unscrupulous, inures
sponsible, and uncontrolled who have little control over their lives.
Since research has begun to catch up with the rhetoric, little sups
port has been found for a separate, distinctive profile of adolescent
fathers. A number of studies have assessed the personality character-
istics of adolescent fathers in comparison to non-adolescent fathers.
These studies, in general, suggest that there is a great deal of over-
lap in the personality prof lies of adolescent fathers and non-fathers.
Some studies have focused on single variables while others have relied
on a multivariate strategy.
S. ingle Var table Studies
The most heavily researched personality factor which has been hy-
pothesized to distinguish adolescent fathers f rom non-fathers is locus
of control. This variable measures the degree to which an individual
believes that events in his life are causally related to his own be-
havior. Internal locus of control refers to the belief that the in-
d ividual has control over the events and outcome in his life. On the
other hand, an individual who believes that the events in his life are
determined by an external source (fate, luck, chance, or powerful
others) is considered as having an external locus of control. It has
been hypothes ized chat teenage fathers ~ and mothers) are higher in ex-
ternal focuses of control, which, in turn, may account for their lower
use of contraception and for their inability to control their sexual
desires and activities. There is no support for this hypothesis for
adolescent mothers; studies of adolescent mothers have found no dif-
ferences in locus of control between adolescent mothers and females
who are not mothers. Results for males are inconsistent. In one study
of 48 unmarried black adolescent fathers and 50 non-father adolescent
controls, the f ethers were higher in external control than the control
adolescents "Hendricks and Fullilove, 1983~. In contrast, in another
study t Robinson. garret, and S keen, 1983) of 20 unwed adolescent
fathers and 20 non-fathers, the investigators found no differences in
locus of control. Similarly, Williams-MaCoy and Tyler ( 1985) found no
differences in locus of control for a sample of 24 teenage fathers and
27 non-fathers. In light of ache fact that both of the studies which
reported no differences utilized well standardized instruments, while
the Hendricks study relied on two single questions to measure exter-
nality, it is likely that locus of control is not a robust correlate
of teenage f atherhood .
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148
Multivariate Studies
S ince it is unlikely that a single factor alone is likely to dis-
criminate between fathers and non-fathers, perhaps multivariate studies
would yield clearer patterns. In an early study, Paulker ( 1971) come
pared the MNPI profiles of boys who became fathers during adolescence
with a matched control g Coup of boys who did not. Since the testing
was executed pr for to their identif ication as fathers, the impact of
be sng labeled as an adolescent father was eliminated . There were d if-
ferences with the out-of-wedlock fathers scar ing higher on scales which
suggest higher activity and somewhat less control. However, the over-
lap between the test scores was extens ive and only three of thi Steen
scales were signif scant. Similarly, there were no differences on the
test of intellectual functioning. AS Paulker ( 19 71) concludes ~ any
contr~but ion these character istics might make to out-of-wedlock preg-
nancy would seem deco be minimal.. Fifteen years later, this conclusion
still seems to have considerable validity. Williams-McCoy and Tyler
(1985), in ~ recent study of black adolescent males (24 fathers and 27
non-fathers) assessed a car iety of personality and background charade -
te rist ics includ ing locus of control, t rust, coping styles, as well as
whether the subject was born out-of-wedlock and the presence of a
sister or brother who had an out-of-wedlock child. Only one person-
ality factor discriminated fathers and non-fathers: interpersonal
trust. Fathers were less trusting than non-fathers. Again, person-
alsty factors seem to play a relatively minor role in determining
whether or not an adolescent male becomes a father.
Others conf irm the general lack of differences in personality
characteristics of adolescent fathers and non-fathers. In a study of
100 teenage fathers and 100 non-father, age-matched peers ranging f rom
14 to 19 years old, no differences were found in the psychological prom
f lies of the two groups (Rivara, Sweeney, and Henderson, 1985) as as-
sessed by the Offer Self-image Questionnaire, a measure of personality
adjustment which yields severs subscales: impulse control, sexual
attitudes, family attitudes, and mastery of the external world.
Instead, the background of the boys--namely, whether or not their
own mother was a teenage parent--was the principal discr imitating fac-
tar in these two recent studies. Whether this effect is mediated by
parenting modeling, differences in the permissiveness of attitudes
toward sexual act ivity the g rester acceptance of teenage childbear ing
or some further factor is not Clear.
Part of the difficulty of isolating personality profiles may be the
individual vs. dyedic focus of the research. As Elster and Panzarine
(1981) note: ma certain interaction of sociocultural and psychological
factors between adolescent partners is necessary for unprotected inter-
cou. se to occur. Each partner br ings into the relationship their own
set of sexual values and psycholog ical tra its. ~ f both adolescents
have a constellation of factors which places them at high risk for
pregnancy, then there is a greater likelihood that this will occur than
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149
if only one or neither of the sexual partners has this pattern. (19 81:
45~. Possibly, studies which assess both partners may yield more
meaningful patterns. In summary, there is no f irm basis for concluding
that there are d if ferences in personality of teenage males who do and
do not become fathers. The search for the predictors of which male
adolescents will father a child clearly should be directed elsewhere.
THE ADOLE SCENT iSALE AS PARENT
In order to assess the role that an adolescent plays as a parent,
a number of issues will be examined including ( a) their knowledge, ~ b)
their interest in infants, and (c) their competence to perform cares
giving tasks.
It Is our assumption that a multivariate framework is necessary in
order to understand the dynamics of the adolescent father as parent.
S econd, it is assumed that a developmental perspective is necessary .
Third, a life course perspective is useful since this view alerts us
to the compet ing demands and needs of the male dur ing the adolescent
per iod. Fourth, it should be emphasized that the determinants of
adolescent sexual act ivity and the determinants of adolescent parenting
may be independent. Fifth, assessment of the parenting role requires
recognition of direct and indirect effects. Fathers can impact their
offspring through direct interaction as well as indirectly through the
support that he provides the child' s mother.
Developmental Restraints or Limitations
There are a var iety of soc ial, emotional, and cognitive limita-
tions which may curtail the adolescent's ability to parent.
Identitv Formation. During adolescence, one of the major develops
mental tasks is the task of identity formation (Erikson, 1965~. While
the process is multifaceted, complex, and gradual, this process is not
often fully accomplished until late adolescence or even the early 20s
( Satrock, 1985: Waterman and Goldman, 1976) . Moreover, evidence sug-
gests that there is a relationship between the capacity for intimate
interpersonal relationships and the achievement of a stable identity
(Oriefsky, Marcia, and Lesser, 1973; Kacerguis and Adams, 1981~. This
potentially limited capacity for intimacy may curtail the adolescent ' s
ability to parent. Moreover, adolescence involves exploration and ex-
perimentation with a variety of roles, such as student, peer group
member, or athlete which, in turn, may be incompatible with the paren-
tal role (Sadler and Catrone, 19831.
Cognitive Development. Ouring adolescence, the individual's cog-
nitive capacities undergo a set of changes. At approximately age 12,
the child coves, to use Piaget's description, frown concrete to formal
operations. In contrast to the younger child, the adolescent is more
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150
capable of ^Ypothetical-deductive thinking. The process of deduction
is Eli longe confined to perceived realities, but extends to hyped
thetical statemer;~s~ (Conger and Petersen, 19847.
In this stage, he is capable of thinking abstractly about events
and is able to see all possible relationships that may exist in a
problem. In addition to improved problem solving skills, the future
time perspective of adolescents is greater than that of younger chil-
dren. Finally, they have a greater sense of the game. (Flavell,
198S), namely that problems have solutions and an awareness of strate-
g ies for solv ins problems.
However, in the present context, it needs to be emphasized that
there are very large individual differences in how quickly these
transitions take place. Second, the process is a gradual one which
continues across adolescence into adulthood (Keating, 1980) . Third,
adolescents or even adults of ten f a il to employ formal operational
thinking nor do they apply their highest levels of thinking to all
problem areas. Emotional factors may especially interfere with the
ef f entice utilization of these capabilities. In ache present context,
it is likely that among adolescents, there will be great differences
in their cognitive abilities to manage the planning and problem
solving assoc iated with effective parenting.
Family Relationships
One of the ma in tasks of adolescence is the ~ radual development of
independence and emanc ipation f ram the family. The early onset of
fatherhood conflicts with this movement, particularly if the male is
still f inane tally and perhaps emotionally dependent on his family.
Th is may prolong the per iod of dependence which, in burn, could lead
to intergenerational conflict.
Although many researchers have found conflict between mother and
adolescent daughter over decisions about child care and childrearing
~ Sadler and Catrone , 1983 ), conf l let between adolescent f ethers and
their parents is likely, especially if the new family lives with the
paternal grandparents (Bolton and Belsky, 19861. Moreover, early
parenthood implies early onset of grandparenthood at a time when the
parents may be unwilling to accept this new role (Tinsley and Parke,
19841. On the other hand, early fatherhood may result in premature
emancipation prior to the time when the adolescent male was prepared
to sever family ties. Being emotionally dependent on his owe parents,
he may be unprepared to accept the responsibilities of fatherhood. Nor
are these issues sepa rate. In a long itudinal study of college f resh-
men' the attainment of a stable identity, for example, is related to a
higher degree of family independence (Waterman and Waterman, 1971~.
S imilarly, LaVoie ( 1976) found that male adolescents high in identity
reported less parental regulation and control. Early fatherhood may
inadvertently lead to he ightened f amily dependence, which in turn,
could inte rfere with the progress of identity formation.
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151
Peer Relationships
At the same t ime that dependence and involvement in the family is
decreasing, involvement in the peer group is increasing (Hartup, 1983;
Go~ctman and Parker, 1986) . Early onset of parenthood is incompatible
with this heightened participation in peer activities and the necessity
of curtailing or even ceasing this participa~cion is another obstacle to
acceptance of pa ~ ental respons ib i 1 ity .
Educat ions 1 and Occupat tonal L im i tat ions
There are educational and occupational barriers which limit the
adolescent male' s capacity to assume parental responsibility. On the
educational side, there is conflict between the pressure to continue
formal schooling and the pressure to provide f inancial assistance for
his partner and child. Education is less often interrupted in order
to assume parental responsibilities in the case of male than female
adolescents. Two factors may account for this sex difference. First,
sac fetal demands to assume the central cares iver role are stronger for
females than males (Bernard, 1981), while greater support and value is
placed by parents on educational achievement for males than females.
(Dweck and Elliot, 1983 Hoffman, 1977) .
Even if education is discontinued and employment is sought, ser ious
problems still remain. In fact, a number of researchers have argued
that a major impediment to male involvement in the fatherhood role
stems, in part, from the centrality of the breadwinner concept in our
definition of adequate fathering (Bernard, 1981; Pleck, 1983; Teti and
Lamb, 1986) as well as our def inition of masculinity (Yankelovich,
1974 ~ . Adolescent males may be reluctant to assume the fatherhood role
due to their either perceived or actual inability to adequately support
a family. Recent studies of adolescent employment (Lewis-Epstein,
1981; Steinberg, 1984) indicate that the jobs available are generally
at unskilled labor, at minimum wage levels with little possibility of
advancement. Not only is the assumption of this type of employment
potentially emasculating and inconsistent with a young adolescent
male's emerging sex role concept but it also provides an inadequate
basis for assuming family responsibilities. This economic outlook for
adolescent males may be a further factor which limits their acceptance
of/or involvement in the fatherhood role.
St resees of Adolescent Father s
As a result of the early onset of fatherhood, the adolescent male
may encounter a variety of stressors which may, in turn, alter his
ability to cope with the social, emotional, cognitive, and practical
aspects of his life. These stressors may, in turn, affect the male
adolescent's capacity to parent. A number of factors will affect the
adaptation to stressful change, including the type and of stress, as
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IS2
well as the availability and adequacy of both personal resources and
external social support systems (Parke and Tinsley, 1982; Elster and
Panzarine, 1981; Elster and Hendricks, 1985~.
Some recent studies have addressed the types of stressors which
adolescent fathers encounter. In the first of two investigations,
Elster and Panzarine (1980) interviewed 16 unwed white teenage fathers
(mean age 17.4 years) enrolled in an adolescent maternity project.
Nine teenagers were clinical!,
assessed to be coping well, four to be
coping moderately well, and three to be coping poorly. Six were re-
ferred for counseling because they were clinically depressed. There
was a positive relationship between a measure of overall personality
adjustment and the adequacy of their coping. In a later study, Elster
and Panzarine (1983) interviewed 20 adolescents {mean age 17.6 years)
from one to four times during the prenatal period and at four to six
weeks following delivery. All conceptions occurred premaritally, but
most couples had married by the time of delivery. Stressors were
grouped into four categories. First, the teenage fathers expressed
vocational-educational concerns, which consisted primarily of general
worries regarding how they were going to support their new family,
finishing school, or f inding employment. These concerns were highest
during the first trimester and appeared to remain at a relatively high
level through gestation and into the postpartum period. All subjects
expressed this concern. A second set of stressors focused on health.
Th is included the present health of the mother, immediate health, and
future welfare of the child and labor and delivery concerns. Due to
the possible sampling bias in these studies, the generality of the
f indings is unclear.
Health concerns were shared by 94 percent of the sample, but peaked
during the third tr mester and dropped off after delivery. A third
source of stress was relationships with partners' parents, friends, and
their feeling of alienation from their church. Seventy-six percent of
the sample expressed these concerns but this Source of stress was
greatest during the first trimester and appeared to decrease across
time. Surprisingly, only 3S percent of the males were concerned about
parenting. This concern was also shifted across time. It appeared
during the second trimester, dropped slightly in the latter part of
pregnancy, and increased again postpartum.
Other studies suggest that these concerns are not restricted to
white adolescents. Hendricks, Howard, and Caesar (1981), in a study
of 95 black teenage fathers found that SS percent of the males expres-
sed concerns about interpersonal relationships, which included a wide
range of problems (relationships with their family of origin, restric-
tion of freedom, problems with parents of their partner, difficulties
of seeing their child). Others (23 percent) reported problems related
to external factors, such as lack of employment, limited money, and
lack of education opportunities. Fourteen percent reported no
problems.
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153
In a later study (Hendricks, 1984), young Hispanic fathers reported
a similar range of stresses including occupational, f inancial tensions,
school problems, interpersonal problems with both their relatives and
their partners, concern about their children's health and future. Tom
Nether, the data suggest a common set of stressors across differen~c
ethnic g roups of teenage fathers.
Although this work must be viewed with caution due to the unkept
resentative nature of the samples and the lack of comparison groups of
older fathers, the studies do underscore the fact that fatherhood
elic its a var iety of stress-produc ing concerns for adolescent males.
Moreover, other studies (McNall, 1976; Miller and Myer-tialls, 1983)
suggest that older parents exper fence many of the same concerns. How-
ever, it is likely that the stresses are exaggerated for adolescents
due to the i r more 1 imited psycholog teal and f inane ial capac ities. The
implications of these issues for intervention will be explored later in
this chapter.
I t is clear that there are ser. ious conflicts between the tasks and
goals of males dur ing the adolescence per lad and the requirements for
effective parenting . Next, we turn to an evaluation of the male
adolescent's level of involvement with their infants, knowledge of
infant development, their interest in infants, and their competence in
executing the parental role.
The Level of Involvement of Adolescent Fathers
A common misconcept ion among researchers and health care profes-
sionals alike is that adolescent fathers have little contact with their
offspring. There are two parts to this myth. Many believe that: ( 1)
the majority of teenage births occur out-of-wedlock, and {2) unmarried
fathers have 1 ittle contact with the mother of the child af ter the
birth. The data contrast markedly with these notions. First, although
slightly more than half (54 percent) of all births to teenagers are
conceived out-of-wedlock, only about 35 percent of all births to teen-
agers occurred out-of-wedlock (Alan Gutemacher Institute, 1976~. How-
ever, between the early 1960s and early 1970s, the proportion of chil-
dren born to unwed adolescent mothers has doubled (Alan Guttmacher
Institute, 1916~.
McCarthy and Menken ( 1979) in an analysis based on the 1973
National Survey of Family Growth found that of 2,258 adolescents who
cones ived out-of-wediook, 68 pe Scent had ~r.ar r fed by the time of den
livery. Similarly, Zelnik, Rantner and Ford (1981) in their national
survey of unmarried adolescents found that 64.8 percent of the white
females in the 1971 cohort and 61.8 percent of the whites in the 1976
survey married while pregnant. There are marked race differences,
since only 9 percent and 10.4 percent of the black respondents in the
1971 and 1976 cohorts, respectively, married during a f irst pregnancy.
These f igures are consistent with other reports: according to the
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154
National Center for Health Statistics, 39 percent of white and 90 per-
cent of black teenage births in 1982 were out-of-wedlock.
According to Lerman { 1985) 65 percent of all 18-25-year-old males
who were fathers in 1983 had married after the birth of their first
child. The decision to marry has important implications, since the
probability of being an absent father is lower if marriage occurred
before rather than after the birth of the first child. Eighty-three
percent of non-absent fathers had married before the child' s birth.
Second, several stud ies of unmarr fed adolescent fathers show a sur-
prising amount of paternal involvement for extended periods following
the birth. For example, in a study of 138 unmarr fed adolescent mothers
In Minnesota, Nettleton and Cline ~ l9?S) found that SO percent of the
4 S mothers who d id not relinqu ish custody of their infants dated the
father during the infant's first year of life. Moreover, 20 percent
of these 45 eventually married him. Similarly, 46 percent of the 180
unwed mothers Lorenzi and his colleagues (Lorenzi, Rlerman, and Jekel,
1977) interviewed in New Haven had either married the child's father
or were seeing him on a regular basis 26 months after the birth. A1-
though the number of women who have regular contact with the men who
fathered their children declined over the child's first two years (56
percent at 3 months, 40 percent at IS months, and 23 percent at 26
months), the percentage of marr iages to the father increased over this
same period (7 percent by 3 months, 17 percent by 15 months, and 23
percent by 26 months). A small but constant proportion of the mothers
at each t dime point ( 18 percent) reported that they saw the father only
occasionally. In addition, most of the fathers who visited the mothers
also visited the child. In addition, Furstenberg (1976) noted similar
rates of visitation as late as f ive years after the birth. Twenty-one
percent of the fathers were living with their children, another 20 per-
cent visited their offspring on a regular basis, while 21 percent
vis ited occas tonally.
The most comprehensive report of the extent to which young fathers
live with their children comes from a recent study by Lerman {19851.
This investigator used NLS data to examine these issues on a national
sample f rom 1979 to 1983 of young men who were 14-21 in 1979. In 1979,
40 percent of young fathers aged 14-21 were absent or lived away f ram
at least one of their children. Across the per iod of 1979 to 1983, as
the sample aged, absent fathers as a proportion of all fathers den
clined f rom 40 to 33 percent.
F inally there are complex ar rangements that of ten obscure thelexrel
of involvement of young fathers. Lerman (1985} found that 5 percent
of absent fathers 18-21 years of age and nearly 20 percent of the 22-
2S-year-olds--often the partners of adolescent mothers--lived with
some but not all of the Or children. Failure to recognie the multiple
sets of living arrangements may have underestimated the level of
involvement of young fathers.
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155
There are large racial differences in the level and pattern of
absent fatherhood among young men. In light of the high proportion of
unmarried young black mothers. it is expected that there will be a high
percentage of young black men who are absent fathers. Among 22-year-
olds, over one of four young black men had become absent fathers; in
contrast to only 3 percent of white and 9 percent of Hispanic 22-year-
olds were absent fathers {I`erman, 1985~. Age of onset of fatherhood
is an important correlate of becoming an absent father (Lerman, 198S).
Of black men ages 23-25 in 1983, about one third of absent fathers had
their f irst child at age 18 or under. In contrast, only 13 percent of
black fathers with their children had a first child by age 19. A
s imilar picture was evident for whites. Among 23-25-ye~r-old white
males, 16 percent of the absent fathers vs. 7 percent of non-absent
fathers had their f irst child before age 19. However, only about 10
percent of 23-2S-year-old absent fathers had their f irst child by age
16, which suggests that very young onset of fatherhood is unusual. In
contrast, age of onset of sexual activity is another correlate of
absent fatherhood. Absent fathers initiated sexual activity earlier
than average. Sixty-three percent of absent fathers (22-25-year-olds)
were sexually active before age 16 in congest to 25 percent of child
less men and 32 percent of fathers living with their children.
The rates of contact between fathers and children vary as a func~
~ ion of whether or not the non-residential father had previously been
married to the child's mother (Furstenberg and Talvitie, 1980) . In
the ease of the formerly moor fed fathers, only 41 percent had no con-
tact over the past year, while 30 percent had at least one contact
during the prior year. In the case of the nearer married fathers, half
had vis ited the ir children on at least one occasion dur ing the past
year and about a fourth maintained regular contact with their of f-
spring, visiting at least once a week. An interesting and consistent
pattern in these studies is that a signif leant number of fathers
establish a ~stab}e. lives in relationship with their child only after
having been residentially separated from their child for one or two
years (Furstenberg, 1976; 1`orenzi et al., 19771--a period that is
of ten necessa ry to complete formal education and/or secure regular
employs ent. As will be discussed later, a delay in regular father-
ch ild contact does not necessar fly preclude the development of a
satisfactory father-child relationship or diminish the father' s impact
on his child' s later development.
Family backs round factors are assoc iated with the extent to which
males will become absent fathers as opposed to fathers who live with
their children. According to Lerman ~ 1985), young men who became
absent fathers were more likely than other young men to come from
families on welfare. Nearly 27 percent of absent fathers lived in
families who received welfare, in contrast to only 8-9 percent of
other yount men. S. imilarly, income levels of families of males who
became a bsent f a the r s we re lowe r . Wh i le these f igu r es suggest that
economic disadvantage is a correlate of fathering involvement, the
relationship is much stronger for white and Hispanic populations than
for black males.
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163
Such support operates directly by making available to the mother
many of the Recess it ies for adequate inf ant care; and it ind erectly
affects the quality of mother-infant interaction by influencing the
mother ' s feelings of economic secur ity. Alter ing the mother-infant
relationship might, in turn, affect the infant's subsequent develop
meet.
Adolescent fathers may indirectly influence their offspring by prom
viding emotional support as well. Feiring and Taylor (1980) found that
maternal-infant involvement was positively related to other mother's
support f rom a secondary parent--67 percent of these secondary parents
were fathers. Emotional support f rom the father is particularly impor-
tant during adolescence in light of the high degree of social prejudice
and interpersonal tension characterizing adolescent pregnancy and par-
enthood (Furstenberg, 1976~. However, the level of emotional support
that married adolescent parents provide for each other is not high.
In a recent study (Lamb, Elster, Peters, Kahn, and Ta~rere, 1986) of
2 72 adolescent mothers and the ir partners, only 33 percent of the
women and 44 percent of the men identif fed their partners as one of
two sources of emotional s~pport--in spite of the fact that these
couples were married. For adolescent mothers who had not married
their male partners by the time of delivery, the rate of identifi-
cation of ache father as a support f igure was only 25 percent. I f the
relationship between the adolescent mother and her parents becomes
stressed as a result of the pregnancy, then we might expect that the
support of the father of the child becomes particularly important in
relieving this stress. In turn, such a reduction in maternal emotional
stress might lead to an increase in her subsequent involvement with her
inf ant . Howeve r, in 1 ight of the recent data f ram the Lamb et al .
study ~ 1976 ), adolescent fathers do not appear to be a major source of
emotional support for their partners.
Although providing support is one of the most common ways in which
adolescent fathers have an indirect effect on their infant's develop-
n~ent, there are other types of indirect influence. Consensus in child-
bearing attitudes, the father' s perception of the mother's caretaking
competence, and other qualities of the husband-wife relationship are
all related to maternal involvement or competence in studies of non-
adolescent fathers. (See Parke, Power, and Gottman, 1979 for review.
I t is likely that in these and other ways, young fathers have an in-
direct influence on their infants' cognitive and social-emotional
development. Furthermore, we might expect that the less the degree of
actual father participation in infancy ~ fathers who visit versus those
who lives in), the more important indirect inf luence becomes.
However, the impact of the adolescent father should neither be
overemphas ized nor should it be assumed that the impact will always be
positive and helpful. In some cases, the involvement of the adoles-
cent father can have negative consequences for the mother. This is
illustrated by a recent prospective study of child abuse. In this
study, 960 adolescent mothers have been followed by Bolton and his
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164
con ques (1985~. 190 of these adolescent mothers were assessed ate
~ b :~ r isk. on the teas is of a vat iety of psycholog ical, soc ial, con-
tex~ =l, and child characteristics (see Parke and Collmer, 1975;
Belsky, 1980; 19847. A follow-up study of these mothers, the fathers
or the males currently involved with the mothers and the health bee
havioral characteristics of the children at age two was executed.
Only 9.S percent of the adolescent mottlers initially assessed as at
risk were officially reported to have abused their child by two years
of age. Of particu, ar interest in the present context is the role of
the father. While no fathers were directly implicated in the cases of
reported abuse, Bolton's analysis suggested that fathers may indirectly
increase the likelihood of abuse. First, the fathers in the high-risk
group were older than the mothers, but only S0 percent were adoles-
cents. They were poorly educated (mean ~ 10th grade) and occupation-
ally at the lower end of the employment spectrum and one~third were un-
employed . Regardless of age, only 15 percent of the couples reported
shar ing any child care responsibilities, while other problems were
evidenced (21 percent alcohol problems, 11 percent drug problematic 7
percent were reported by the mother to be violent and 9 percent had
criminal records. All of these factors were slightly more prcainent
among fathers paired with mothers who eventually maltreated the chil-
dren (Boleros, MacEachron, Laner, and car, 1985) . The father' s role is
further implicated by the fact that maltreating mothers were twice
(44.4 percent) as likely to be married than were the non-maltreating
mothers (21.5 percent). However, 20 percent of these married fathers
d id not live with the mother and child and only 50 percent contributed
to the f inancial support of mother and child. Unfortunately, the
other' s contribution to these outcomes by selecting men with these
characteristics was not assessed in this work and mer its consideration.
Nevertheless, this study underscores the necessity of considering the
negative as well as the positive impact of adolescent fathers on
mothers and children.
As Bolton notes, cone buffer in the family situation seemed to be
provided by the young fathers' families. No officially reported mal-
treatment has yet occurred among adolescent parents who live with the
fathers' parents or who are receiving financial support from the
fathers' parents. In the absence of this external support system
however, the presence of a male, at least in the 'high risk' group
appeared to increase risk. (Boston and Belsky, 1985~. However, the
determinants of when grandparental support will be available to young
adolescents is unclear. It is well documented that maternal grand-
parents often assist the adolescent mother in rearing her infant
(Furstenberg and Crawford, 1981) but the extent to which the level of
this support Star ins as a function of the degree of involvement of the
male partner is still not clear. As Lob et al. ( 1986~ recently re-
ported one determinant of grandparen~cal response to pregnancy is
marital so It's of the adolescent couple. Both maternal and paternal
grandparents (69 percent and 8S percent respectively) were more pos i-
tive about the pregnancy If the couple was married than if they mar-
r fed between conception and delivery {22 percent and 26 percent
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16S
respectively) or not at all (20 percent and 34 percent for maternal
and paternal grandparents respectively). In view of the potentially
important role of non-partner sou roes of support among adolescents,
increased attention to the determinants of this support is needed.
In other cases, the fathers' impact may be negligible. For
example, among adolescent parents, Furstenberg (1976) found that
neither marriage patterns nor paternal involvement were related to
either maternal commitment or performance. Maternal warmth, conf i-
dence, and the general quality of maternal relations were no higher
when the father lived with or interacted regularly with his child than
when he was absent. Fu rthermore, there was no evidence that separation
affected either the mothers' level of interest in their children nor
their evaluation of themselves as parents. Maternal performance was
not markedly af fected by defer Cal of mar r iage. F inally, those who re-
mained unmarried were no less interested in their children, and no less
competent or confident as caregivers. There was one complicating fac-
tor--marriage to another male. Women who married someone other than
the child' s father appeared to encounter more d iff iculty in managing
motherhood. In comparison to those who married the father of the
child, the adolescent mothers who married other men were less confi-
den~c in their parenting role, had more behavior problems with their
children, and were more critical of their children.
What accounts for this general pattern of minimal impact of the
father on the mother' s behaviors? According to Furstenberg (1976~:
Ironically, a partial reason that the young mothers managed as
well as they did with so little assistance from the child's father
may be the generally high rate of family dissolution among
lower-income blacks. While the broken family is hardly the
preferred pattern, it is not an uncommon one, and women are
prepared to raise their children with little or no help from the
father. Childbearing assistance from relatives and f r lends also
helps to offset the low involvement of the father. Moreover,
since little is expected of him, even the minimal assistance
provided by a nonresidential father is welcomed and appreciated.
As some indication of this, over three~fourths of the mothers
reported that the nonresidential father enjoyed a positive
relationship with hi. child, a figure nearly as great as that for
the residential father. In the eyes of the mother and probably
the child as well, the nonresidential father comes to be accepted
for what he can offer rather than denigrated for what he cannot
(p. 1937.
As these studies demonstrate, the father's indirect impact in the
family can vary greatly and effort needs to be directed toward iso-
lating the determinants of the nature of impact on the mother.
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166
THE I MOTIONS OF MAY FATED FOR TO ~~ =E" ~
In this section, the implications of achieving fatherhood during
adolescence for the male h imself will be examined. Three aspects will
be discussed: (1) marriage and divorce rates; (2) education attain-
men t; and ~ 3 ~ econom ic and occupat tonal outcome s.
Intact on Harr iage and D ivorce Rates
Among both men and ~men, Card and Wise (1978, 1981) found that
adolescent childbearing was associated with a young age at first mar-
riage. Second, the proportion of teenage parents who were separated
or divorced was higher than that of their classmates at all time
periods (1, 5, and 11 years after expected high school graduation).
Even after controlling for age of first marriage, the association be-
tween age at first birth and subsequent separation or divorce was
signif Scant.
Moreover, adolescent childbearers had been married a greater number
of times than the classmates. This was true for both finales and females
at both 5 and 11 years after high school. In view of the disruptive
effects of divorce on both adult and children' n social and emotional
lives (Hetherington and Camara, 1984), this poses a serious problem.
Educat tonal A tta inment
There are clear educational implications of early childbear ing for
both males and females. Card and Wise (1978) in their analysis of
Pro j ect Talent data f ound that there is a d irect l inear relet ionship
between age at f irst birth and amount of education f ive and eleven
years after the date of their expected high school graduation. It is
generally assumed that the consequences of early childbearing are more
direct and severe for young females than for young males (Card, 1977;
Card and Wise, 1978~. While males are not immune to the impact of
early fatherhood, as Marsiglio {1986} notes, Many of the consequences
are contingent upon the father's willingness to assume a degree of
responsibility in raising his child. In the context of American
sac iety assuming tests responsibility usually entails some type of com
mitment to the mother, usually in the form of marriage. {1985~. To
the extent that the adolescent father disassociates himself from the
child and/or the mother, he may minimize the negative impact of early
paternity on their own sac ial or educational tra Sector ies.
In view of this distinction, it in necessary to keep separate in
our discussion, males who do and do not accept the social a--- economic
responsibilities associated with early fatherhood.
A number of factors influence the adolescen~c fathers' educational
atta indent . T iming of the onset of f atherhood is important. Morgan
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167
(1984), in a study of high school dropouts, found that the dropout
rate was higher among 10th and llth g racers than among 9th and 12th
graders. Moreover, those who are one or more years behind their
normal age-grade are more likely to drop out than those who are on
schedule educationally. The implication of these data for adolescent
fatherhood is clear: early timing of fatherhood may accelerate the
race of dropouts from the educational system.
Recently, Marsiglio ( 1986) drew upon the NLSY Study, a nationally
representative panel study of youth between 14 and 22 who were inter-
viewed in 1979 and again in 1983. The probability of dropping out of
high school for those who had a birth while in their teens (.44) is
higher than for those who either fa~chered a child when they were 20 or
older ~ . 22) or who were childless at the time of the 1983 follow-up
survey. Stated differently, only 67 percent of teenage fathers grad-
uated f rom high school in contrast to 8 7 percent of males who had not
been teenage fathers. Moreover, among the teen fathers who graduated
twice as many earned a G .E . D . ~ 12 pe rcent in camper ison to non-teen
fathers (6 percent) . The importance of this f inding stems f roan the
fact that the G.E.~. may not be treated as equivalent to a regular
high school d iploma in the employment marketplace. There are some
racial differences as well: white and Hispanic males showing more
disruption of their high school careers as a result of fathering a
child than black males. F if ty-three percent of white teenage fathers
graduated in contrast to the 91 percent graduation rate of white males
who did not father a child as a teenager. The f igures were 49 percent
vs. 75 percent for economically disadvantaged whites and 39 percent vs.
72 percent for Hispanic males. Although there was still a signif leant
impact on black males, the effect was less pronounced. Sixty-eight
percent of black teenage fathers graduated in compar ison to 76 percent
of non-fathers. Marsiglio ( 1986) suggests that apart of the reason
why there is only a modest difference between black teenage fathers
and their comparison group in terms of high school completion proba-
bilities has to do with the social acceptability of early childbearing
within the black subculture, evidenced by the tendency for blacks to
have their first child out of wedlock. (p. 151. Surprisingly, dropout
rates were not affected by marital status or whether or not the father
lived with their child. One limitation of the study which Harsiglio
( 1986) acknowledges is the inability to take into account temporal
sequent ing of educat tonal measures relet ive to bi rth events. There's
f ore, it is unknown whether a male had already d rapped out of school
at the time when he achieved fatherhood. An alternative interpretation
is, therefore, that males who leave school early may be more likely to
achieve early onset of fatherhood.
Support for this possibility comes f ram Lerman ( 1985) who found
that young men who become absent f ethers had poorer academic records
prior to becoming a father. Of 18-20 year-olds with no children in
1979, only 12 percent of the mena who remained childless by 1983 were
school dropouts in contrast to 40 percent of the men who became absent
fathers and 23 percent of men who became fathers living with their
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168
children. Similarly, I`erman (1985) reported that 36 percent of absent
fathers and 27 percent of present fathers had not completed more than
11 years of schooling in contrast to 17 percent of childless young men.
Lower levels of school completion may have Wincher caused or resulted
f ram lower than average math and reading skills. Lerman (1985) found
a consistent profile of lower scores on mathematics and word knowledge
and reading comprehension among young fathers in comparison to child
less young men.
Finally, a combination of early marriage and parenthood may be
another correlate of lower academic attainment. Initially married
youths were much more likely to be high school dropouts (7? percent)
than adolescent fathers who either married between conception and
birth or not at all (43 . S percent} . (Lamb, Elster, Peters, Kahn and
Traver s, 1986) .
Together, these studies indicate that the direction of causality
between early fatherhood and educational attainment is probably bi-
directional and further research is necessary to determine when early
fatherhood leads to early termination of education and when the reverse
is true.
Occupat tonal I "act
The occupational impact of adolescent parenthood is again greater
for females than males, according to Card and Wise (1978~. For males,
at one and f ive years after high school, Snore males who had been
adolescent fathers were working than was true of their classmates.
Employment patterns, however, vary depending on whether of not
young fathers are living with their children or absent. Lerman ( 1985)
found that young men who lived with at least one of their children had
higher rates of employment than absent fathers. However, 11 years
after high school when the two groups were 29 years old, there were no
differences. Early fathering was related to early entry into the labor
force, but was unrelated to any long-term rate of labor force partic i-
pation. Eleven years after high school, adolescent fathers were o~rer-
re=resented in the blue collar job categor ies, and underrepresented in
the professions, reflecting their divergent educational attainment.
However, there were no significant difference in income between
adolescent fathers and their classmates. AS Card and Wise note, this
may be only temporary. Tat 11 years after high school, their class-
mates' investments in education have only begun to be reflected in
increased income. It may be expected that as time goes on, the class-
mates ' income will surpa ss that of the less educated teenage f ethers.
{Card and Wise, 1978) .
In contrast, females have less prestigious jobs have lower incomes
and are less satisf fed with their jobs than their classmates at all
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169
time periods even though the labor force participation rates do catch
up and surpass those of their classmates as the latter begin their
childbear ing years.
These differences between males and females reflect the fact that
females, in most cases, assume greater responsibility than males for
rear ing the of fspring .
CONCLUSIONS AD Fall INSEAM DI==I=S
An understanding of the adolescent father requires recognition of
te multiple developmental tasks that face adolescents. While current
research suggests that adolescent males are generally not ready for
fatherhood, little research has systematically documented the ways in
which the developmental status (social, cognitive, emotional and physi-
cal) of the male either affects his likelihood of becoming a father
during adolescence or alters the quality of his enactment of the
fathering role. The approach to adolescent fatherhood in terms of an
analysis of developmental tasks recognizes the individual variability
among adolescents not only across age but also within the same age
period. This approach recognizes that there are signif leant individual
dif ferences among adolescent males and the tendency to treat adoles-
cents as a single class has led to a failure to systematically examine
these variations across adolescents (8elsky and Miller, 1986~.
Patterns of contact and involvement with e ither the mother and/or
their child are highly var table across adolescent males. Multiple
patterns ranging from the extremes of marriage and cohabitation to no
contact are found with many var. iations of levels and types of contact.
However, the rates of contact are suff iciently high to correct prior
assumptions that adolescent fathers are, as a group, uninvolved and un-
interested. The determinants of living arrangements and type of con-
tact between adolescent fathers and their partners and children are
poorly understood.
I t is important to recognize that the male partners of adolescent
mothers represent not only adolescents but a wide range of older, non-
adolescent males as well. With few exceptions (e.g., Nakashim- and
Camp, 1984} there is very little known about the similarities and dif-
ferences between male partners of adolescent mothers who are adoles-
cents themselves or older. In light of the fact that educational and
occupational stability is more likely to be achieved among older vs.
younger males, the age status of the male partner may have important
implications for the impact of the onset of parenthood for the males
themselves as well as for the role that they could play in financis1
and social support of their partners and offspring. Limiting our
analysis of adolescent childbearing and childrearing to adolescent
male partners alone is clearly an oversimplif ication of the problem.
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170
Not surprisingly, we still know relatively little about the adoles-
cent males' abilities to parent. First, more research is required con-
cernir~ the adolescent males ~ knowledge concerning child developmental
timetables. By comparing male and female knowledge, we can evaluate
the colon assumption that females are better informed concerning the
course of infant development and therefore better prepared to assume a
parenting role than males. Adequate observational studies of adoles-
cent fathers and mothers interacting with their infants and children
are needed in order to evaluate the actual parenting competence of
adolescent males and females. Evaluation should include fathers alone
with their inf ants as well as observations in the family context of
mother, father, and infant. Available research indicates that adoles-
cent fathers do not differ freon older fathers of adolescent mothers;
future studies of non-adolescent fathers whose partners are also non-
adolescents are necessary in order to determine whether adolescent and
adult father differ in their parenting skill.
What are the effects of adolescent fathers on their offspring?
Tentative evidence suggests that paternal contact is associated with
enhanced social and cognitive development of children,but the amount
of evidence is still too uneager to draw strong conclusions about the
beneficial or deliterious effects of adolescent fathers on their off-
spring. Research which addressed patterns of contact over time bee
tween fathers and their children in both married, unmarried as well as
separated and divorced fathers are ncessary in order to determine
whether both quality and quantity of parental contact of facts the
development of their offspring. In light of the long~term behavioral
and educational problems of both boys and 9 iris evidenced in the
follow-up of the Baltimore project {Furthenberg and Brooks~Gunn, 1985),
evaluation of the moderating impact of the father on these outcomes
would be worthwhile.
Another issue is the relative impact of the male partner in cow
parison to other potential childrearing agents who stay be available to
assist the adolescent mother such as the reaterna3~ and paternal 9 rand-
parents on the subsequent development of both the infant and the
mother. Is it better to involve the male partner in the early child-
care of the infant even if this means interfer ing with the educational
and occupational trajectory of these individuals? Does involvement of
the male partner modify the level of support provided by maternal or
paternal grandparents? If decreased involvement of grandparents is a
result of increased male participation, what are the consequences of
this decreased involvement for the mothers and/or infants?
Adolescent fathers support their partners socially, emotionally
and financially. A significant proportion of adolescent father. con-
tr~bute financially--even among absent fathers, with previously mar-
ried fathers contributing more than never-~rr fed fathers. More rem
search on the determinants of financial support patterns among absent
adolescent f ether s is needed . The role of sac ial and emot tonal support
provided by adolescent males for their partners is still poorly under-
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171
stood and research concerning the quality of relationships--mar ital
and non-mar~tal--between adolescents would be worthwhile.
This research would be helpful in understanding the high levels of
divorce among adolescents. In addition exploration of the impact of
marital dissolution on the young males themselves in terms of their
fathering role would be of interest.
F inally, occupat tonal and educational status is related to adoles-
cent fatherhood. While the occupational impact of achieving father-
hood dur ing adolescence is less for males than females, further evalua-
tion of lifetime career trajectories of adolescent fathers is neces-
sary to estimate the long-range implications. Educational attainment
of adolescent fathers is clearly lower than childless adolescents.
However, more research is needed to evaluate the causal direction of
these effects in light of evidence that early termination of formal
educat ion may be a precu rsor of adolescent fatherhood .
In summary, by increasing our attention to the role of the male in
adolescent pregnancy, childbearing, and childrearing, we may not only
better understand the issues but be guided to more effective preven-
tion and intervention programs and policies.
An overall recommendation concerns the general lack of sensitivity
to the age of the adolescent male in the current literature. I t is
important to examine the age of the adolescent male in future studies
and if possible go beyond age per se and begin to specify the male
adolescent' s social, emotional, and cognitive status. This approach
recognizes that there are signif leant individual differences among
adolescent males. The tendency to treat adolescents as a single class
has led to a failure to recognize the variations across adolescents
(Belsky and Miller, 19857. By recognizing this diversity, clearer
intervention recommendations could be offered, which are more sensi-
tively gauged to the developmental status of the target population.
For example, it is unlikely that parenting programs for very young
males will be either successful or advisable in terms of their probable
benef it for either the mother or child, due not only to the relative
immaturity, but also due to their educational and employment status.
More work is necessary to understand the male role in contracep~
tion. Specifically, the determinants of male vs. female utilization
of contraception needs more examination. This issue needs to be ex-
plored in the context of adolescent social relationships to determine
more clearly the male role in decision making in different types of
social relationships (i.e., casual vs. steady) and at different phases
of a stable dating relationship.
More attention should be paid to the male role in the resolution
of pregnancy outcomes. Little information is available concerning the
male's role in abortion decisions nor are the effects of the abortion
exper fence on males well understood. S. imilarly, more information con-
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172
Corning the role of male partners in contrast to funnily and friends in
adoption decisions would be helpful.
Not Burp ris ingly, we still know relatively little about the adoles-
cent males' abilities to parent. First, more research is required con-
cerning the adolescent males' knowledge concerning child development
timetables. By compar ing male and female knowledge, we can evaluate
the common assumption that females are better informed concerning the
course of infant development and therefore better prepared to assume a
parenting role than males.
Second, adequate observational studies of adolescent fathers and
mothers interacting with their infants and children are needed in order
to evaluate the actual parenting competence of adolescent males and fee
finales. Evaluations should include fathers alone with their infants as
well as obser~rat ions in the f amily context of another, f ether, and
inf ant.
Third, what are the effects of adolescent fathers on their off-
spring? Research which addresses patterns of contact over time between
fathers and their children in both mare ted, unrearr fed as well as sepa-
rated and divorced are necessary in order to determine whether both
quality and quantity of paternal contact affects the development of
their offspring. In light of the long~term behavioral and educational
problems of both boys and ': :.rl~ evidenced in the follow-up of the
Baltimore project (Furster~erg and 8rooks~Gunn, 1985}, evaluation of
the moderat ~nq impact of the father on these outcomes would be worth-
while.
More attent ion needs to be g iven to the development, implementa-
tion, and most or itically, the systemic evaluation of programs aimed
specifically at males. In light of the different developmental course
followed by males and females in the timing and pattern of the emer-
gence of sexual behavior and in the differential role of biological
and social factors in determining sexual behavior of males and females.
it is questionable whether the usual strategy of similar programs for
males and females is any longer justif led. However, the differential
role of biological factors In determining sexual behavior for males
and females does not imply that social intervention strateg ies aimed
at modifying sexual behavior of males will not be successful. The
relationship between biological responses and the social environment
is clearly bidirectional; just as hormonal variables can influence
social behavior, social factors, in turn, can modify hormone responses
Astwood, 1972; Rosenblatt and S. iegel, 1981) .
While programs to modify sexus1 behavior, especially efforts to en-
courage the delay of onset of sexual activity, continue to be devel-
oped, the success of these programs has been limited. Therefore, in
combination with these programs, intervention strategies aimed at more
effective utilization of contraception among adolescent males need to
continue to be developed as well.
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173
Finally, parenthood programs aimed at adolescent males need to be
developed and evaluated. Caution in the implementation of parenthood
programs for males should be exercised in light of ache mixed evidence
concerning the effects of male adolescent involvement in a parental
role on mother and of f spr ing . ~ t is important to recognize the wide
diversity of forms that adolescent father involvement assumes, f rom
married and live in arrangements to infrequent visitor andJor f inancial
contributor (Sullivan, 19851; in turn, programs need to be sensitively
gauged to meet the var iety of def initions that fatherhood assumes among
this populat ion.
In summary, by inc teas ing our attention to the role of the males in
adolescent pregnancy, childbearing, and childrearing, we may not only
better understand the issues but be guided to more effective prevention
and intervent ion prog rams and pal ic ies.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
absent fathers
