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References ABC/Washington Post 1982 Roper Center Poll. Storrs: University of Connecticut. Abrahamse, Am., P.A. Morrison, and Lid. Waite 1985 How Family Charactenstics Deter Early Unwed Parenthood. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of Amenca, Boston. Adler, N.E. 1973 "Sample atmnon in studies of psychosocial sequelae of abortion How great a problem?" Journal of Applied Social Psychology 6:24~2;7. Adler, N.E., and P. Oolani 1986 Psychological issues in abortion for adolescents. In G.B. Melton (ed.), Adoles- centAbornon: Psychologicaland Legal Issues. Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press. Alan Gumnacher Institute 1981 Teenage Pregnancy: The Problem That Hasn't Gone Away. New York: Alan Gumnacher Institute. 1984 Organized Family Planning Services in the United States, 1981-1983. New York: Alan Guttmacher Insutute. in Teenage PregnanqmDe~relopedCountnes. New Haven, Conn.: YaleUn~ver press sib Press. Alexander, G. 1984 Project Choice, Interim Report: Year III. S." Diego, Calif.: Center for Wom- en's Studies and Services. Amencan College of Obstetnei~nc and Gynecologists 1982 Standards for Obstemcal-Gynecologic~1 Services. I:i~h ed. Washington, D.C.: Amencan College of Obstetnmans and Gynecologists. American Institutes for Research 1979 The Ecology of Hel~Seeking Behavior Among Adolescent Parents. Cam- bndge, Mass.: Amencan Insntutes for Research. 295

296 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITy PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARI~G Anderson, E. 1978 A Place on the Corner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Arnold, C.B. 1973 "A condom distribution program for adolescent males." Pp. 138-140 in D.V. McCalister, V. Thiessen, and H. McDermott (eds.), Readings in I:amily Plan- ning: A Challenge tO the Health Professions. St. Louis, Nlo.: Mosby. Auletta, K. 1982 The Underclass. New York: Random House. Averch, H.A., Ski. Carroll, T.S. Donaldson, H.~. Kiesling, and T. Pincus 1972 How Effective Is Schooling? A Cnt~cal Review and Synthesis of Research Findings. Santa Monica, Calif.: The Rand Corporation. Bachman, I.G., S. Green, and I.D. W=anen 1971 Youth in Transition, Vol. III: Dropping Out-Problem or Symptom? Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research. Bachrach, C.A. 1984 "Contraceptive practice among American women, 1973-1982." I:amily Plan- mng Perspectives 16~:25~259. 1986 "Adoption plans, adopted children, and adoptive mothers." Journal of Mar- nage and the Family 48:24~2;3, May. Bachrach, C.A., and W. Mosher 1984 "Use of contraception in the United States, 1982." Advance Data From Vital and Health S=nstics i02~4~. Badger, E. 1977 '`The infant snmulationlmother training project." Pp. 4~-62 in B. Caldwell and D. Stedman feds.), Infant Education. New York: Wallcer Publishing. 1981 "Effects of parent education program on teenage mothers and their of{spnng." Pp. 28~309 ~ K.G. Scott, T. Field, and E.G. Robertson feds.), Teenage Parents and Their Offspring. New York: Grune & Stratton. Badger, E., O. Bursts, and B. Rhoads 1976 Education for adolescent mothers in a hospital setting. American Journal of Public Health 66:469072. Baldwin, W., and V. Cain 1980 "The children of teenage parents." Family Planning Perspectives 12~1~:34 43. Bank Street College no Teen Faders: Partners in Pare$~ur~g. New York: Bank Street College of Educa date non. Baurnan, K., and J.R. U dry 1981 "Subjective expected utility and adolescent sexual behavior." Adolescence 14:~27-~38. Belmont, L., P. Cohen, J. D~yfoos, Z. Stein, and S. Zayac 1981 '`Maternal age and children's intelligence.', Pp. 177-194 in K. Scott, T. Field, and E.G. Robertson feds.), Teenage Parents and Their Offspring. New York: Grune & Stratton.

REFERENCES 297 Belsky, J., ed. 1982 In the Beginning: Readings on Infancy. New York: Columbia University Press. Betsey, C.L., R.G. Holister, Jr., and M.R. Papageorgiou, eds. 1985 Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years. Committee on Youth Employment Programs, National Research Council Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Billingsly, A. 1970 "Illegitimacy and the black community." Pp. 7~85 ~ Illegitimacy: Changing Services for Changing Times. New York: National Co2,nal on Illeg~tunacy. Billy, J.O.G., and J.R. Udry 1983 The Ejects of Age and Pubertal Development on Adolescent Sexual Behavior. Unpublished manuscript. University of North Carolina. 1984 "Adolescent sexual behavior and friendship choice." Social Forces 62~3~:6;~ 678. Block, A.H., and S. Dubin 1981 Research on the Societal Consequences of Adolescent Childbearing: Welfare Costs at the Local Level. Final Report, NO1-HD-92838, Social and Behavioral Sciences Branch, Center for Population Research, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Md. Blum, W.R., M.D. Resnick, and T.A. Stark 1985 The Impact of a Parental Notification Law on Adolescent Abortion Deasion- Making. Unpublished many. University of Minnesota. Bonham, G.S., and P.~. Placek 1918 "The relationship of maternal health, infant health, ant somodemographic factors to fertility." Public Health Reports 93~3~:28~292. Bracken, M., M. Hachamontch, and A. Grossman 1974 "The tension to abort "d psychological sequelae." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders lS:l5~161. Branch, A.Y., I. Milliner, Andy. Bumbaugh 1986 Summer Training and Education Program (STEPS: Report on the 1980 Sum- mer Experience. Philadelphia: Public/Pri~rate Ventures. Brann, E. 1979 "A muliivariate analysis of interstate variation in fertility of teenage girls." AmeD=n,Journal of Public Health 69:661-666. Broman, S.H. 1981 ;'Long-term development of children born to teenagers." Pp. 19~224 in K. Scott, T. Field, and E.G. Robertson (eds.), Teenage Parents and Their OF- spring. New York: Grune & Stratton. Bumpass, L., and T.A. Sweet 1972 '~DiEerennals in mental instability: 1970." American Sociological Rewew 37(6):75~766.

298 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY PREGNANCY A AD CHILDBEARING Burden, D.S., and L.V. Kler~l~an 1984 "Teenage parenthood: factors that lessen economic dependence." Social Work 29Qanuary/February):1 1-16. Bureau of the Census 1980 "Population Estimates and Projections." Current Population Reports, Series P-2S, No. 965, 917. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. 1984a "Childspacing among birth cohorts of Amencan women: 190~19~9." Cur- rent Population Reports. Series P-20, No. 38~. 1984b "Mantal status and living arrangements." Current Population Reports. Senes P-20, No. 389. March 1983. 1980a "Mantal status and limug arrangements: March 1984." Current Population Reports. Senes P-20, No. 399. July 198;. 198Sb "Money income and poverty status of families and persons in the fruited States: 1984." Current Population Reports. Senes P-60, No. 149. 198;c Statistical Abstract of the United States. 103th ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. 1985d Statistics Abstract of the Umted States. 106th ed. Washm~on, D.C.: U.S. Deparunent of Commerce. Burt, M. 1986 Estimates of Public Costs for Teenage Childbeanug. Unpublished paper pre- pared for the Center for Population Options, Washington, D.C. Burt, M., M.H. Kimnuch, T. Goldmuntz, and Fib. Sonnenstein 1984 Helping Pregnant Adolescents: Outcomes and Costs of Service Delivery. Final report on the evaluation of adolescent pregnancy programs. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. Card, J.J. 1978 Long-Term Consequences for Children Born to Adolescent Parents. Final report to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Palo Alto, Calif.: American Institutes of Research. Card, id., "d L.L. Wise 1978 "Teenage mothers and teenage fathers: The impact of early childbearing on the parents' personal and professional lives." Family Planning Perspectives 10~4~:199-205. Gates, W., Ir. 1981 4'The Hyde Amendment in acuon."~]oum21 ofthe American Medical Associ- aiion 246. Cates, W., Jr., et al. 1983 `'The risks associated with teenage abortion." New England Journal of Medicine 309:621-624. CBS/New York Times 1980 CBS News The New York Times Poll. New Yorl:: CBS News.

REFERENCES 299 Center for Population Options 1984 I~ife Planning Project: Interim Report June 1, 1983-January 31, 1984. Un- published report. Center for Population Options, Washington, D C. Centers for Disease Control 1983 Surgical Sterilization Surveillance: Tubal Sterilization and Hysterectomy in Women Aged 1;04. Atlanta, Gal: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Chamie, M., S. Eisman, T.D. Forrest, M. Orr, and A. Torres 1982 I:actors affecting adolescents' use of family planning clinics. Family Planning Perspectives 14(May/June):126-139. Children's Defense Fund 1985 Preventing Children Having Children. Clearinghouse paper no. 1. Washing- ton, D.C.: Children's Defense Fund. Chilman, C. 1980a Adolescent Sexuality in a Changing Society. U.S. Government Pnuting Office Publication No. 10-1426: January. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1980b "Toward a reconceptualization of adolescent sexuality." Pp. 101-127 in c. Chilman (ed.), Adolescent Pregnang and Childbearing: Findings From Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv- ices. Clark, S.D, Jr., L.S. Zabin, and J.B. Hardy 1984 "Sex, contraception, and parenthood: Expenence and attitudes among urban black young men." Family Planning Perspectives 16(March/Apul):77-82. Cobliner, W.G. 1981 "Prevention of adolescent pregnant: A developmental perspective." In E.R. McAnarney and G. Stickle (eds.), Pregnancy and Childbearing Dunog Adolescence: Research Priorities for the 1980s. New York: Alan R. Liss. Cohen, P., L. Belmont, T. Dryfoos, Z. Stein, and S. Zayac 1980 "The effects of teenage motherhood and maternal oKspnog intelligence." Social Biology 27~2~:138-154. Coleman, T.S. 1961 The Adolescent Society. New York: Free Press. Coleman, I.S., et al. 1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Conger, J. 1973 Adolescence arid Youth. New York: Harper and Row. Cooper, L 1983 The Effecnveness of Family Life Education in Twelve Secondary School Districts. Santa Cow, Calif.: Network Publications.

300 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING Coughlin, O. 1978 I:amily Planing and the Teenager: A Service Delivery Assessment. Washing- ton, D.C.: INS. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. C~etkowch, G., and B Grote 1975 Antecedents of Responsible Family Formation. Progress report paper pre- sented at a conference sponsored by the Population Division, National Insn- tute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Md. 1980 "Psychological development and the social problem of teenage illegitimacy. " Pp. 1~1 in C. Chilman (ed.), Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbearing: Findings Prom Research. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1981 Male Teenagers' Sexual Debut, Psychosocial Development and Contracep- tive Use. Unpublished manuscript. Western Washington University. Daling, I.R., and I. Emanuel 1977 "Induced abortion and subsequent outcome Pregnancy in a series of Amen- can women." New England Journal of Mediane 297:1241-1245. Davies, M., and D. Kandel 1981 "Parental and peer influences on adolescents? educational plans: some farther evidence." American Journal of Sociology 84~23:363-387. Davis, K., and A. Grossbard-Schechtman 1980 Study on How Mother's Age and Circumstances Affect Children. Final report to Nanonal Ir~sutute for Child Health and Human Development. Los Angeles: University of Southern California. Detraney, B.L., and K.S. Hubley 1981 The Determinants of Adolescent Pregnangy and Childbearing. Finalreport tO the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Washing- ton, D.C.: Mathematica Policy Research. Donovan, P. 1983 "Judging teenagers: How minors fare when they seek court-authonzed abortions." Family Planning Perspectives 1~:2~9-267. Douvan, E., and J. Adelson 1966 The Adolescent Expenence. New York: John Wiley. D:yfoos, J.G. 1983 Review of Interventions in the Field of Prevention of Adolescent Pregnancy. Preliminary report to the Rockefeller Foundation, New York. 1984a "A new strategy for preventing unintended teenage childbearing." I:amily Planning Perspectives 16:19~195. 1984b Prevention Strategies: A Progress Report. Report tO the Rockefeller I:ounda- non. New York: Rockefeller Foundation. 1984c "A rime for new thinking about teenage pregnancy." American Journal of Public Health 7~1~:1~14.

REFERENCES 301 1985 Review of Programs and Services to Foster Responsible Sexual Behavior on the Part of Adolescent Boys. Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Edwards, L., M. Steinman, K. Arnold, and E. Hakanson 1980 "Adolescent pregnancy prevention services In high school clinics." Family Planning Perspectives 12:6-14. Eisen, M., G.L. Zellman, A. Leibowitz, W.K. Chow, and T.R. Evans 1983 "~:actors discnmmanug pregnancy resolution decisions of unmarried adoles- cents." Genetic Psychology Monographs 108:69-9~. Eisen, M., G.~. Zellman, and A. McAlister 1980 A Health Brief Model Approach to Adolescents' Fertility Control: Some Pilot Program Findings. Working paper No.7-002. University of Texas Population Center. Eisenstadt, S.N. 1977 "Cultural settings and adolescence and youth around the year 2000." InJ.P. Hill and A. Monks (eds.), Adolescence and Youth in Prospect. Guildford, Surrey, England: IPC Science and Technology Press, Ltd. Elder, G.H., Jr. 1968 Adolescent Socialization and Personality Development. Chicago: Rand McNally. 197; "Adolescence in the life cycle." In S. Dragaslin and G.H. Elder, Jr. (eds.), Adolescence in the Life Cycle. Washington, D.C: Hemisphere. 1980 "Adolescence in historical perspective." In I. Adelson (ed.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New York: Wiley. Ellwood, D., and M.~. Bane 1984 The Impact of AFDC on Family Structure and Living Arrangements. Cam- bndge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Epates, A. 1980 Assessing the Child Development Information Needed by Adolescent Parents With Very Young Children. A report to the Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare. Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation. Evans, ]., G. Selstad? and W. Welcher 1976 `' teenagers: Fertility control behavior and attitudes before and after abortion, childbearing or negative pregnancy test." I:amily Planning Perspectives 8t4):192-2~. Ezzard, N.V., W. Gates, Tr., D.G. Kramer, and C. Tietze 1982 "Race-specific patterns of abortion use by American teenagers." American Journal of Public Health 72:809. Field, B. 1981 "A socio econor~iic analysis of out-of-wedlock birth among teerlagers." In

302 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING K. Scott, T. I:ield, and E.G. Robertson feds.), Teenage Parents and Their Offspring New York: Grune & Stratton. Finkel, M.L., and D.~. Finkel 1975 "Sexual and contraceptive knowledge, attitudes and behavior of male adoles- cents." Family Planning Perspectives 9:3~6-360. 1984 Sex Education in the High Schools: It Can Make a Difference. An Evaluation of the New York City Family Fife Curriculum, Including Sex Education. Revised curriculum. Unpublished manuscnpt. Cornell University Medical Center. Flacks, R. 1970 "Social and cultural meanings of student revolt: Some informal comparative observations." Social Problems 17:34~357. 1971 Youth and Social Change. Chicago: Markham. I:laherty, E., and J Maracek 1982 Psychological Factors Associated With Fertility Regulation Among Adoles- cents. Final report to National Institute of Child Health and Human Devel- opment. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Health Management Corporation. T:orbush, T.B. 1978 Statement at the hearing before the Subcommittee on Select Education of the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, on H.~. 12146, July 24, 1978. Forrest, T.D. 1986 Proportion of U.S. Women Ever Pregnant Before Age 20: A Research Note. Unpublished paper. Alan Guttmacher Institute, New York. Forrest, T.D., and S.K. Henshaw 1983 "What U.S. women think and do about contraception." Family Plar~r~ing Perspectives 1~4~:157-166. Forrest, J.D., A. Hermalin, and S. Henshaw 1981 "The impact of family planning clinic programs on adolescent pregnant." Family Planning Perspectives 13:109-116. Box, G.L. 1980 Mother-Daughter Commmunicanons re Sexuality. Final report to the Na- tional Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Detroit: Memll- Palmer Institute. 1981 "The family's role in adolescent sexual behavior." Pp. 7~130 in T. Ooms (ed.), Teenage Pregnancy in a I:amily Context. Philadelphia: Temple Univer sity Press. Freeman, E.W., K. Rickels, G. Huggins, et al. 1980 "Adolescent contraceptive use: Comparisons of male and female attitudes and information." Asnencan Journal of Public Health 70:79~797.

REFERENCES 303 Freeman, R.B., and H.~. Holzer 198~ "Young blacks and jobs- What we now know." The Public Interest 78 (Winter):18-31. Furstenberg, F.~:., Ir. 1916 Unplanned Parenthood: The Social Consequences of Teenage Childbearing. New York: I:ree Press. 1980 "The social consequences of seepage parenthood." In C. Chilman (ed.), Adolescent Pregnangy and Childbearing: Findings I:rom Research. NIH Publication No. 81-2077 267-308. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Furstenberg, F.F., Ir., and I. Brooks-Gunn 1980a "Adolescent fertility: Causes, consequences and remedies." In L. Aiken and D. Mechanic (eds.), Applications of Social Science to Clinical Mediane and Health Policy. New Brunswick, N.~.: Rutgers University Press. 1983b Adolescent Mothers in Later Life New York: The Commonwealth Fund. F=stenberg, F.~:., Ir., and A.G. Crawford 1978 "Family support: Helping teenage mothers to cope." Family Planning Per spectives 10(November/December):322-333. Furstenberg, l:.~., Ir., K.A. Moore, and I.L. Peterson 1985a "Sex education and sexual experience among adolescents." American Journal of Public Health 7~(11):1331-1332. Purstenberg, F.l?., Ir., S.P. Morgan, K.A. Moore, and T. Peterson 198ob Exploring Race Differences in the Timing of Intercourse. Unpublished man Gallup, G. uscNpt. University of Pennsylvania. 1978 Reflects Epidemic of Teenage Pregnancies: Grouting Number of Americans Favor Discussions of Sex ~ Classrooms. News release. Princeton, N.~.: The Gallup Poll. 1980 Dissatisfaction Motivated Voters. Report No. 183. Princeton, N.7.: Gallup Opinion Index. Garbarino, I., and C.E. Asp 1981 Successful Schools and Competent Students. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books. Glazer, N. 1980 "Interests and passions." Public Interest 81:17-30. Click, P. 1975 "A demographer looks at American families." Journal of Marriage and the F=nily 37:1~26. Gold, M. 1969 "Juvenile delinquency as a symptom of alienation." Journal of Social Issues 2~:121-13~.

304 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING Gold, R.B., and A.M. Kenney 1983 "Paying for maternity care." Family Planning Perspectives 17(May/ June):103-11 1. Gold, R.B., and B. Nestor 1985 `' Public funding of contraceptive, sterilization and abortion services, 1983." Family Planning Perspectives 17~1~:2~-29. Golden, P.M, R.W. Wilson, and l. Kanet 1984 "Prevention profile." Health: United States; 1983. Hyatts~lle, Md.: Na- tional Center for Health Statistics. Goldsmith, S., M. Gabrielson, and I. Gabrielson 1972 "Teenagers, sex and contraception." I:amily Planning Perspectives 4~1), January. Goldstein. H., and H.M. Wallace 1978 "Services and needs of pregnant teenagers in large Sties of the United States, 1976." Public Health Reports 93:4~54. Greenberg, B., R. Abelman, and K. Neuendorf 1981 "Sex on the soap operas: Afternoon delight." Journal of Communication (Summer). Greer, C. 1972 The Great School Legend: A Revisionist Interpretation of American Public Education. New York: Basic Books. GnEfiths, J. 1977 "Reducing the medical risk of teenage pregnancy." Sexual Medicine Today (October). Gnmes, D.A., et al. 1981 "Fatal septic abortion in the United States, 1973-1977." Obstetrics and Gynecology 57:739-744. FIaggstrom, G.W., and P.A. Morrison 1979 Consequences of Parenthood in Late Adolescence: Findings From the Na- tional longitudinal Study of High School Seniors. Santa Monica, Calif.: The Ed Corporation. Haggstrom, G.W., D.E. Kanouse, and P.A. Morrison 1983 Accounting for the Educational Shortfalls of Young Mothers. Unpublished manuscript. The Rand Corporation. Hardy, I.B. 1983 Determinants of Repeated Adolescent Pregnancy. Final report 20 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. Hardy, J.B., and C.D. I:lagle 1980 Results, Costs and Assessment of the Investment Opportunity. Unpublished paper prepared for the Office of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs, U.S. De- partment of Health and Human Services.

REFERENCE 303 Harlan, W., G. GnIlo, 3. Carononi-Huntley, and P. Leaverton 1980 "Secondary sex charactenstics of boys 12 to 17 years of age: The U.S. Health Examination Survey." The30urnal of Pediatrics 9~2~:29~297. Harris, L. 1979 Majority Favors Abortion, but Foes Have Political Strength. ABC News- Hams Survey, March 7, 1979. Hartley, S. F. 1975 Illeg~unacy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hayes, C.D. (ed.) 1982 Making Policies for Children: A Study of the Federal Process. Committee on Child Development Research and Public Policy, National Research Counal. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Health Insurance Association of America 1982 The Cost of Having a Baby Washington, D.C.: Health Insurance Associa- tion of Amenca. Heifer, R., and A. Wilson 1982 "The parent-infant relationship: Promoting a positive beginning through perinatal coaching." Pediatric Clinics of North America 29:~2~. Henshaw, S.K. 1982 `'Freestanding abortion clinics: Services, structure, fees." Family Planning Perspectives 14:248-2~6. Henshaw, S.K. (ed.) 1983 Abortion Services in the United States, Each State and Metropolitan Area, 1979-1980. New York: Alan Gut.l~acher Institute. Henshaw, S.K., 3.D. Forrest, and E. Blaine 1984 "Abortion seduces in the United States, 1981 and 1982." Family Planning Perspectives 16:119-127. Henshaw, S.K., and G. Marure 1982 "Mortality and legality." Family Planning Perspectives 14:5~60. Henshaw, S.K., and K. O' Reilly 1983 "Characteristics of abortion patients in the United States, 1979 and 1980." Family Planning Perspectives 1~1~:;-16. Henshaw, S.K., and L.S. Wallisch 1984 "The Medicaid cutoff and abortion services for the poor." Family Planning Perspectives 16:17~180. Herold, E. 1980 Contraceptive Attitudes and Behavior of Single Adolescent Females. Final Report, Contract HO1-HD-92809. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Md. Hill, J.P., and I:.3. Monks 1977 "Some perspectives on adolescence in modern societies." In3.P. Hill and F.3.

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316 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY; PREGNANCy ANL) CHILDBEARING Orr, M. 1982 "Sex education and contraceptive education in U.S. public high schools." Family Plaur~ing Perspectives 14:3~313. 1984a The Media and Sex Education: A Review of the literature. Unpublished paper. New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute. 1984b "Pnvate physicians and the provision of contraceptives tO adolescents." Family Planning Perspectives 16(MarchlApul):83-86. Orr, M., and ].D. Forrest 198: "The availability of reproductive health services from U.S. private physi- aans." Family Planning Perspectives 17(March/April):63-69. Ory, H., ].D. Forrest, and R. Lincoln 1983 Making Choices: Evaluating the Health RisI;s and Benefits of Birth Control Methods. New Yorl:: Alan Guttmacher Institute. Panel on Youth of the President's Science Advisory Committee 1974 Youth: Transition to Adulthood. Chicago: University of Chicago. Parke, R.D., T.G. Power, and T. Fisher 1980 "The adolescent father's impact on the mother and child." journal of Social Issues 36. Philliber, S. 1985 Teen Outreach: Results of the I:irst Year of a National Replication. Unpub- l~shed report. The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. Philliber, S., P. Namerow, T. Kaye, and C. Kunlies 1983 Pregnancy RisI;talcing Among Adolescents. Final report to the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. New York: Columbia University. Polit, D.~:., J.~. Kahn, and G.M. Enman 1981 Contracepn~re Decisionmaking in Adolescent Couples. Final report to Na- tional Institute of Child Health and Human Development. American Insti- tutes of Research, Washington, D.C. Polit-O'Hara, D.,.J. Kahn, and D. Stevens 1984 Project Redirection Impact Analysis. Draft final report. Jefferson City, Mo.: Humanalysis. Poppen, P.J. 1979 Psychological Detersninants of Adolescent Contraceptive Use. Final report to National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Washington, D.C.: George Washington University. Pratt, W.F. 1984 National Center for Health Statistics National Survey of Family Growth, 1982, Cycle III. Pratt, W.F., and G.E. Hendershot 1984 The Use of Family Planning Services by Sexually Active Teenage Women. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Minneapolis.

REFERENCES 317 Pratt, W.F., W.D. Mosher, C.A. Bachrach, and M.C. Horn 1984 Understanding U.S. fertility. Findings from the National Survey of Family Growth, Cycle III. Population Bulletin 39~;~: 102. Presser, H.B. 1974 "leanly motherhood: Ignorance or bliss?" Family Planning Perspectives 6:8- 14. 197; Social Consequences of Teenage Childbearing. Paper presented at the Confer- ence on Research on Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbear- ing, sponsored bar the Center for Population Research, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the Alan Guttmacher Institute. Washington, D.C., October 29-30, 197~. 1976a "Social consequences of teenage childbeanug." In W. Peterson and L. Day (eds.), Social Demography: The State of the Art. Cambridge, Mass.: Har- vard tJni~rersity. 1976b Some Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancies. Paper presented at National Institute of Child Health and Human De~relopmen: Conference, Bethesda, Md. 1980 Working Women and Child Care. Papa presented at the Research Confer- ence on Women: A Developmental Perspective, sponsored by Nationad Insti- tute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Md. Public Response Associates, Inc. 1982 Family Communication Program Survey Conducted for Solem arid Associ- ates. San Franasco: Public Response Associates, Inc. Quinn, J. 198: Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy: A Proposed Research and Service Pro- gram Developed by Girls' Clubs of Amenca, Inc. New York: Girls' Clubs. Quint, J.C., and J.A. Riccio 1980 The Challenge of Serving Pregnant and Parenting Teens. New York: Man power Demonstration Research Corporation. Reis, J. 1984 Teenage Pregnancy and Teenage Parenthood in Illinois: 1979-1983 Costs. Unpublished report. Center for Health Services and Policy Research, North western University. Reiss, I.L. 1973 Heterosexual Relationships Inside and Outside Marriage. Mornstown, N.~. General Learning Press. 1976 Family Systems in America. Hinsdale. Ill.: Dryden Press. Resnick. M. 1984 Adoption Deasion-Malcing Project. Research study funded by the Office of Adolescent Pregnancy Programs, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

318 ADOLESCENT SEXUALI~ PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING Reuben, D. 1970 Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex But Were Afraid to Ask. New Yorlc: David McKay. Kindfuss, R.R., L. Bumpass, and C. St. John 1980 "Education and fertility . . . roles women occupy.', American Sociological Rewew 4;:431 417. Rivera-Casale, C., L.V. Klermar~, and R. Manela 1984 "The relevance of child-support enforcement to school-age parents." Child Welfare 58~6~:521-531. Rosen, R.H. 1980 "Adolescent pregnancy decision-making: Are parents important?" Adoles- cence 15:43-54. Ross, H., and I. Sawhill 197; Time of Transition: The Growth of Families Headed by Women. Washing- ton, D.C.: Urban Institute. Rubin, L.B. 1976 Worlds of Pain. New York: Basic Books Rutter, M. 1983 School effects on pupil progress: research findings and policy implications Child Development ;4~1~:1-29. Sahler, O.~.Z. 1980 "Adolescent parenting: Potential for child abuse and neglect?" Pediatric Annals 9:67-75. Sandier, H.M., P. Vietze, and S. O'Coralor 1981 Obsternc and neonatal outcomes following intervention with pregnant teen- agers. Pp. 249-263 in K. Scott, T Field, and E.G. Robertson (eds.), Teenage Parents and Their Offspnog. New York: Grune & Stratton. Scales, P., and D. Beckstein 1982 "From macho to mutuality: Helping young men to make effective decisions about sex, contraception and pregnancy." In I. Stuart and C. Wells (eds.), Pregnanq in Adolescence: Needs, Problems and Management. New York: Van Nostrand. Scheirer, M.A. 1981 The Indirect Ejects of Mother's Age at First Birth on Welfare Payments: Empirical Motel Specification, Esnmanon and Results. Working Paper No. 4. ArmaD dale, Va.: JWK InterDanonal Corporation. Schinke, S.P, B. Blythe, and 1~. Gilchnst 1981 ''Cognitive behavioral prevention of adolescent pregnancy." Journal of Counseling Psychology 28~:451054. Schinke, S.P., and L. Gilchrist 1984 Life Skills Counseling With Adolescents. Baltimore, Md.: University Park Press.

REFERENCES 319 Schoenbaum, S.C., et al. 1980 "Outcome of the delivery following an induced or spontaneous abortion." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 136:19-23. Shadish, W.R.,.Ir., and I. Reis 1984 "A review of studies of the effectiveness of programs to improve pregnancy outcomes." Evaluation Review 8:747-7;7. Shea, l., R. Herceg-Baron, and F.F. Furstenberg, Ir. 1984 "~:actors associated with adolescent use of family planning clinics." Amen- can loumal of Public Health 74(November):1227-1230. Simms, M. 1983 "The participation of young women in employment and training pro- grams." Pp. 462~83 in C.L. Betsey, R.G. Hollister, Jr., and M.R. Papa- georgiou feds.), Youth Employment and Training Programs: The YEDPA Years. Committee on Youth Employment Programs, National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Simon, W., and l.H. Gagnon 1970 The Sexual Scene. Chicago: i~ldine. Simon, W., A.S. Berger, and J.H. Gag$lon 1972 "Beyond anxiety and fantasy: The coital experiences of college youth." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 1:20~222. Singh, S., A. Torres, and..). Forrest 1985 "The need for prenatal care in the United States: Evidence from the 1980 National Natality Survey." Family Planning Perspectives 17(May/ June):11~124. Smith, T. 1980 A Compendium of Trends on General Social Survey Questions. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center. Sonnenstan, F., and K. Pitunan 1982 Sex Education in Public Schools: A Look at the Big U.S. Cities. Paper presented to the annual meeting of the National Council on Family Rela- tions, Washington, D.C. Sorenson, R. 1973 Adolescent Sexuality in Contemporary Amenca. New York: World. Spewer, G. 197: "S~ization and premarital sexual behawor." Family Coordinator 24 (lJanuary):33 41. Spenner, K.I., and D.L. I:eatherman 1978 "Achievement ambitions." Annual Review of Sociology 4:37~420. Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews. Stack, C. 1974 All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in the Black Community. New York: Harper and Row.

320 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING Steinhoff, P. 1976 Premantal Pregnancr and the First Birth. Paper presented at the Conference on the Birth of the First Child and Family Formation, Pacific Grove, Calif., March 1976. Report on part of a larger study, Hawaii Pregnancy, Birth Control and Abortion Study. University of Hawaii. St.~Iohn, C., and H.G. GrasmicI; 1982 Racial Differences in the Fertility Process: An Elaboration of the Minonty- Group Stan3s Hypothesis. Unpublished manuscript. University of Oklahoma. Stinchcombe, A. 1964 Rebellion in a High School. Chicago: Quadrangle Bool;s. Stokes, J., and J. Greenstone 1981 "Helping black grandparents and older parents cope with child reanug: A group method." Child Welfare 60:691-701. Sweet, ].A., and 1~. Bumpass 1984 Progress Report on Census Monograph on Families and Households-With Special Attention to the Increase in Cohabiting. Working paper 84-12. Cen- ter for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin. Talbot, T.M., L. Rohzbach, C. Coan, and S. Kar 1982 The Stanls of Teen Peer Advocate Programs in the U.S. Unpublished paper. Los Angeles Regional Family Planning Council. Taylor, I.B., J. Wadsworth, and N.~. Butler 1983 "Teenage mothering, admission to hospital, and accidents during the first fire years." Archives of Disease in Childhood 58~6~. Thomburg, H.D. 1978 "Adolescent sources of initial sex information." Psychiatric Annals 8:419- 423. Thomton, A., and D. Camburn 1983 The Influence of the Family on Premarital Sexual Attitudes and Behav3 or. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Associa non. Tietze, C. 1984 "The public health effects of legal abortion in the United States." Family Planning Perspectives 16:2~28. Torres, A. 1984 "The effects of federal funding curs on family planning services, 198 1983." Family Planning Perspectives 16~3~. Tomes, A., and J.D. I:orrest 1983 "family planning clinic services in the United States, 1981." Family Plan- ning Perspectives 1~:278. 1985 "family planning clinic services in the United States, 1983." Family Plan- n i n g P e r s p e c t i v e s 1 7 0 a n u a r y / F e b r u a ~ y ~ : 3 ~ 3 5 . Torres, A., J.D. I:orrest, and S. Eisman 1980 "Telling parents: Clinic policies and adolescents' use of family planning and

Russell, T.J. REFERENCES - 321 abortion services." Family Planning Perspectives 12(November/Decem- ber):28~292. 1976 "Economic consequences of teenage childbearing." Family Planning Per- spectives 8:180191. Trussell, T.~., Andy. Abowd 1979 Teenage Mothers, Labor Force Participation and Wage Rates. Paper pre- sented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Philadelphia, Apnl. Trussell, T..l, and I. Menken 1978 "Early childbearing and subsequent fertility." Family Planning Perspectives 10~4~:209-218. Trussell, TV., T. MenI;en, B. Lindheim, and B. Vaughan 1980 "The impact of restricting Medicaid financing for abortion." Family Plan- ning Perspectives 12:12~130. Tyack, D.B. 1974 The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University. Tyler, C.W., Jr. 1983 "The public health implications of abortion." Annual Rewew of Public Health 4:223-258. Udry, T.R. 1979 "Age at menarche, at first intercourse and at first pregnant." Journal of Biosoaal Science l 1:433 441. Udry, J.R., K.E. Bauman, and N.M. Moms 1975 `' Charges in premarital coital experience of recent decad~of-birth cohorts of urban American women." Toumal of Mamage and the Family 37:78~787. Utry, J.R., J.O.G. Billy, N.M. Morris, T.R. Groff, and M.H. Raj 1983a "Serum androgeruc hormones motivate sexual behavior in adolescent boys." Motility and Sterility 430anuary):9~94 Utry, I.R., 1~. Talben, and N.M. Morris 1985b Biosocia1 Foundations for Adolescent I:emde Sexuality. Papa presented at the annual meeting of the Amencan Sociological Association, Washington, D.C. U.S. Congress, House 1980 Children in Poverty. Committee on Ways and Means. 99th Congress, 1st Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1986 Teen Pregnancy: What is Being Done? A Stat - by-State look. A report of the Select Comniittee on Children, Youth and Families, House of Represenra- nves, 99th Congress. December. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. General Accounting Office 1984 WIC Evaluations Provide Some Favorable But No Conclusive Evidence on the Effects Expected for the Special Supplemental Program for Women,

322 ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY; PREGNANCY AND CHILDBEARING Infants and Children. Report to the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry, I3.S. Senate, Washington, D.C. Vener, A.M., and C.S. Stewart 1974 "Adolescent sexual behavior in Middle Amenca revisited: 197~1973." Journal of Marnage and the Family 36:72~735. Vincenzi, H., and I. Brewer 1982 The Educational Performance of Children of Teenage Mothers. Paper pre- sented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Associa- tion, New York. Waite, L.j., and K.A. Moore 1978 "The impact of an early first birth on young women's educational attain- ment." Social I:orces 56:84~-865. Walker, D., and A. Mitchell 1985 I:inal' Report: Impact Evaluation of Too-Early Childbearing Programs. Un- published report tO the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, Contract "83-311. Bos Alam~tos, Calif.: Southwest Regional Laboratory. Wattenberg, E. 1984 Protecting the Rights of the Minor Child of Unmarried Minor Parents: Toward a Rational Policy. Paper presented to the Child Support Enforcement Research Workshop, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Weatherly, R., S.B. Perlman, M. Levine, and L.V. Klerman 1985 Patchwork Programs: Comprehensive Services for Pregnant and Parenting Adolescents. Execun~re summary from a report prepared for the U.S. Public Health Service, Office of Population Affairs, Grant No. APR 000908~2-0. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Wertheimer, R., and K.A. Moore 1982 Teenage Childbearing: Public Sector Costs. Final report to National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Washington, D.C.: Urban Inst~- tute. Westby, D.L., and G.R. Braungart 1970 "Activists in the history of the future." In Foster and bong (eds.), Protest! Student Activism in America. New York: Morrow. Wesmey, O.E., R.R. Jenlcins, and C.M. Benjamin 1983 "Sociosexual development of pre-adolescents." Pp. 27~300 in J. Brooks- Gunn and.~. Peterson (eds.), Girls at Puberty. New York: Plenum. Wilson, W.~. 1981 "The black community in the 1980s: questions of race, class, and public policy." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 454(March):2601. Wilson, W.J., and K.M. Neckerman 198: Poverty and Family Structure: The Widening Gap Between Evidence and Public Policy Issues. Unpublished conference paper. Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin.

REFERENCES 323 Yankelowch, D. 1974 The New Morality: A Profile of American Youth in the 1970s. New YorI;: McGraw^Hill. Zabin, L.S., and S.D. Clark, Ir. 1981 "Why they delay: A study of teenage family planning clinic patients." Family Planing Perspectives 13(September/October):205-217. Zabir~, L.S., M.B. Hirsch, E.A. Smith, and.~.B. Hardy 1984 "Adolescent sexual attitudes: Are they consistent?" Family Planning Per- spectives 16:181-185. Zabin, L.S., M.B. Hirsch, E.A. Smith, R. Streett, andJ.B. Hardy 1986 "Evaluation of a pregnanq prevention program for urban teenagers." T:=n- ily Planning Perspectives 18:119-126. Zelazo, P.R., and R.B. Kearsley 1980 "fiche emergence of functional play in infants: Evidence of a major cognitive transition." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 1~2~:95-117. Zellman, G.L. 1982 "Public school programs for adolescent pregnanq and parenthood: An as- sessment." Family Planing Perspectives 14January/February):lS-21. 7~1nik, M. 1983 "Sexual activity among adolescents: Perspective of a decade." In E.R. McAnamey (ed.), Premature Adolescent Pregnanq and Parenthood. New York: Grune & Stratton. Zelnik, M., and ].F. Kantner 1977 "Sepal and contraceptive experience of young unmamed women in the United States, 1976 and 1971." Family Planning Perspectives 9:~-71. 1980 "Sexual activity, contraceptive use, and pregnancy among metropolitan-area teenagers." Family Planing Perspectives 12(j), SeptemberlOctober. Zel~ik, M., l. K=tner, and K. Ford 1981 Sex and Pregnancy in Adolescence. 13e~rerly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications. Ze~ik, M., and YE Kim 1982 "Sex educanon and its association with teenage sexual activity, pregnar~q and contraceptive use." Family Planning Perspectives 14(May/June):117-126. Zelnik, M., M.A. Koenig, and Yet. Kim 1984 "Source of prescription contraceptives and subsequent pregnancy among women." I:asnily Planning Perspectives 160anuary/Pebruary):~13. Zel~ik, M., and F.K. Shah 1983 "first intercourse among young Americans." Family Planning Perspectives 15:64 12. Zitner, R., md S. Miller 1980 OR Youngest Parents: A Study of the Use of Support Services by Adolescent Mothas. New York: Child Welfare League of America.

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More than 1 million teenage girls in the United States become pregnant each year; nearly half give birth. Why do these young people, who are hardly more than children themselves, become parents? This volume reviews in detail the trends in and consequences of teenage sexual behavior and offers thoughtful insights on the issues of sexual initiation, contraception, pregnancy, abortion, adoption, and the well-being of adolescent families. It provides a systematic assessment of the impact of various programmatic approaches, both preventive and ameliorative, in light of the growing scientific understanding of the topic.

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