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OCR for page 15
Part ~
Background
Consiclerations
OCR for page 16
OCR for page 17
The Physical Setting
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE HATTERAS SHORE
The entire east coast of North America forms part of a
trailing edge coast in the global plate-tectonic scheme Unman
and Nordstrom, 1971~. Although such a trailing edge is seis-
mically passive compared with the west coast of North Amer-
ica, trailing edge coasts subside in response to gradual
cooling of the underlying oceanic crust. The generally level
appearance of the east coast of North America owes its
topography to this passive accumulation of sediments eroded
from the Appalachian mountains since the beginning of the
Jurassic, more than 200 million years ago. Subsidence rates
along the American east coast, however, have not been uni-
form.
ORIGIN OF THE OUTER BANKS
The Outer Banks of North Carolina is one of the longest
continuous barrier-island systems in the world. The Outer
Banks includes all the barrier islands from Bogue Banks in
the south to Currituck Banks in the north (Figure 3~. Strik-
ing repetitive morphological patterns at all the Carolina capes
and the location of all the Outer Banks islands on the Caro-
lina Platform permit patterns identified in the Cape Lookout
to Cape Fear region to be extrapolated northward to the
Cape Hatteras region.
17
OCR for page 18
18
Background Considerations
N.C.
LGREENSBORO
· DURHAM
* RALEIGH
FAYETTEVILLE
,~
TYRRELL COUNTY ~
FIGURE 3
not include Bogue Banks).
The Outer Banks of North Carolina (figure does
OCR for page 19
The Physical Setting
19
The best Holocene (the past 10,000 years) sea-level curve
on the Outer Banks is for Cape Lookout (Heron et al., 1984~.
This curve--a function of sea level over time--is based on
carbon- 1 4-dated peats in island cores (Figure 4) and demon
A par
ticularly sharp decline in the rate of sea-level rise occurred
about 4,000 years ago.
strafes that the rate of sea-level rise has declined.
Before this, all barrier-island shorelines probably were
moving landward. As a consequence of the sharp decline in
rates of sea-level rise 4,000 years ago, some segments of the
coast began moving seaward (prograding). Other coastal seg-
ments, perhaps nearby, might have continued to erode.
Along the North Carolina coast, this pattern meant that
shorelines facing south--west of capes such as Cape Hatteras,
Cape Lookout, and Cape Fear--began to accrete. Therefore,
the most landward beach ridges at Bogue Banks are about
4,000 years old. The pattern of progradation at Buxton
Woods on Hatteras Island (Figure 5) suggests that this area,
too, is no more than 4,000 years old. This maximal age has
coastline
however,
, , ~
been recorded for many barriers along the U.S.
(Nummedal, 1983a).
.. . . .
The east-facing shorelines,
continued retreating, so they are much younger.
ISLAND MORPHODYNAMICS
The capes evolved through a complex pattern of long-
shore, offshore, and onshore sediment transport. This trans-
port is controlled by longshore currents driven by some of
the highest wave energies along the East Coast. The mean
annual wave height at Cape Hatteras is 4.9 feet ( 1.5 meters),
and deepwater waves in excess of 6.6 feet (2 meters) are
present 25% of the time (Nummedal et al., 1977~. This high
wave energy drives powerful and persistent longshore cur-
rents along the Atlantic shore of the barriers. The resulting
longshore transport rate along the east-facing barrier shore-
line is calculated at 2.3 million cubic yards (1.7 million m3)
of sand per year toward the south (Langfelder et al., 1968~.
Tides are small at the Outer Banks because of the narrow
~~ ~ ~ The mean tide range
and the
adjoining continental shelf.
Hatteras is only 3.6 feet ( 1.1 meters),
currents are weak except at tidal inlets.
at (:ape
associated
consequently, the
OCR for page 20
20
o
0'
-
~6
re
oh
~9
3
° 12
-
8 15
Background Considerations
,~
_~
IRRENT SEA LEVEL ~_0O_
_* O
·/0*^
/0~ O
.
*
.
.
· Shell MaterIal
O Basal Peat
O Peaty Clay and Sand
· Wood
Compacted Sample
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,1 1 1
9 8
7
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Years Before Present (BP) x 103
FIGURE 4 Relative sea level at Cape Lookout during the
past 9,000 years. Adapted from Heron et al., 1984.
~ i ~ <' -- : ~Pamlico Soun I; Buxton W1~
~ ~'' ~., . . . ' , . .; ., : ~
, I--- F ~ ) Relics dunes jam
:/' -~_- --~A\~ctd~neS H LighthOuse I|
- _ ,- ,- ~ Active dunes
.'~ v~,!~,,ie,i2i't,~'^~/~- ~ et\e\~_,C-~ I_.
f:rlsco ~ / ',
~~~'~ ;',~ .J ~2 j',,~ 'C: r"·~"
,)/~l'anti~
ewe_- _ L._--- J
FIGURE 5 Complex pattern of dune ridges at Cape Hatteras
indicating pattern of progradation. From Dolan and Lins,
1986.
OCR for page 21
The Physical Setting
21
morphology of the Outer Banks barrier-island chain is that of
a wave-dominated barrier characterized by long, thin barrier
islands, frequently overwashed in their natural state, and
subject to rapid landward migration.
. . . .. .. .
These islands are sepa-
ra~ea oy migrating, weedy spaced tidal inlets (Nummedal et
al., 1977~.
The morphology at
dramatic differences in
Cape Hatteras is controlled by
physical processes along the two
flanks of this cuspate foreland. Due to the dominance of
northeasters, the directional distribution in wave power is
such that 75% of the total onshore power strikes the east-
facing flank, but only 25% strikes the south-facing shore
(Nummedal et al., 1977~. As a consequence, the east-facing
shore generally is exposed to erosional waves; waves
approaching the south shore cause accretion. Therefore, the
history of Cape Hatteras has been one of shoreline retreat at
the eastern shore and accretion to the south (see, e.g., Dolan
and Hayden, 1983; Dolan and Lins, 1986~.
The average rate of erosion at the northern part of Hat-
teras Island, which faces east, is 6.4 feet ( 1.94 meters) per
year. The accretion of the southern part of the island,
which faces south, has progressed at 1.2 feet (37 cm) per
year (Dolan and Lins, 1986~. If sea level continues to rise at
its current rate, this pattern will be maintained. If sea level
rise accelerates, as has been suggested recently (NRC. 1 987bi.
the southern shore could become
facing shore could erode more rapidly.
Not all the sand that converges on Cape Hatteras accretes
along the southern shore. Most of it is carried offshore
onto the extensive Diamond Shoals (Figure 6~. These and
related shoals along the Atlantic seaboard define zones of
long-term sediment convergence during the Holocene retreat
of the East Coast barrier islands. Much of the sand once
contained in the barriers probably has been lost to these
extensive shoals and the associated smaller, linear shelf sand
ridges (Swift, 1976~.
, ~ .,, ~ , ,,
erosional, and the east
OCR for page 22
22
Background Considerations
-
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to
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4°: rem v'
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OCR for page 23
The Physical Setting
23
STORMS
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is on a coast subject to
numerous storms. The most powerful are hurricanes; how-
ever, the most frequent are extratropical storms (north-
easters), which sometimes have winds of hurricane force.
The Outer Banks region has an annual hurricane landfall
probability of about 20% (Simpson and Lawrence, 1971), the
highest along the East Coast north of southern Florida. Yet,
northeasters dominate the annual wave-energy distribution
(Nummedal et al., 1977~. The mean annual wave power at
Cape Hatteras is 23 x 103 watts/m, among the highest along
the East and Gulf coasts (Nummedal, unpublished). Although
an individual hurricane track is difficult to predict, docu-
mented hurricanes historically follow a well-defined path
across the Cape Hatteras region from south to north
(Neumann et al., 1978~. Northeasters at Cape Hatteras are
most frequent during November through March (Dolan and
Lins, 1986~.
Storms threaten the lighthouse in two major ways. First,
erosion is accelerated. Storms generate powerful longshore
currents that transport large quantities of sand. Such trans-
port results in erosion of the east-facing shoreline at Cape
Hatteras, while the south-facing shoreline accretes.
Second, waves and storm surges caused by severe storms
can wash over the barrier island, break open new inlets, and
threaten land structures. Storm centers are areas of low
barometric pressure and are associated with a local rise in
sea level known as a storm surge. A storm surge of S.S feet
(2.7 meters) above normal high tide has approximately a 1%
probability of occurrence per year (MTMA Associates, 1980~.
The cumulative effects of storm surge, storm waves, and
spring tide during the Ash Wednesday storm of March 5-S,
1962, produced waves more than 30 feet (9 meters) high
along the mid-Atlantic coast (Dolan and Lins, 1986~. Hur-
ricane Diana produced sustained winds of 75 knots (138 kilo-
meters per hour) and a modest storm surge of 5.5 feet ( 1.7
meters) at Carolina Beach in September 1984. Yet it proba-
bly was responsible for shoreline retreat of as much as 50
feet (15 meters) (NRC, 1986~.
The primary danger of a severe storm to the lighthouse is
that the foundation would be undermined, and the structure
OCR for page 24
24
Background Considerations
would collapse. An extremely severe storm could produce
waves large enough to damage the lighthouse directly by
their battering. The probability of such a severe storm,
however, is very low. The most likely combination of events
that would damage the lighthouse is a series of two or three
moderately severe storms within a few weeks. In this case,
the effects of the first storm would render the lighthouse
more vulnerable to the effects of later storms. If the shore-
line continues to retreat and protective measures are not
taken, the lighthouse will become increasingly vulnerable to
the effects of storms during the next few decades.
Individual storms cannot be predicted reliably more than a
few days in advance, much too late for any major protective
measures. In addition, many years might pass with no major
storms; in other years, several major storms might occur.
The frequency and severity of storms also affects the rate of
shoreline retreat, which has not been uniform. Therefore, it
is impossible to make precise predictions concerning the sur-
vival of the lighthouse.
· ~
CHANGES IN SEA LEVEL
The rate of change in sea level (the first derivative of
sea level with respect to time), and changes in the rate of
sea-level change (the second derivative of sea level with
respect to time) have profound influences on the formation
and behavior of barrier islands. - ~
estimating the risk to
l hey are also critical In
Cane Hatteras Lighthouse and effec-
tiveness of options for protecting the lighthouse.
-
~.
Even if
the second derivative is () (ye. sea-level rise IS not accelera-
ting), the lighthouse is at risk because the barrier island will
continue to migrate westward. There is no reason to believe
that the first derivative will become O; an overwhelming body
of evidence indicates that sea level will continue to rise for
at least the next several hundred years (NRC, 1987b).
Historical Trends
Global (eustatic) sea level has fluctuated throughout geo-
logic history in many cycles of different frequencies and
OCR for page 25
The Physical Setting
25
amplitudes (Nummedal, 1 983b; Haq et al., 1987~. Processes
such as varying rates of sea-floor spreading, waxing and
waning of ice-sheets, and changes in global ocean tempera-
ture all cause sea-level changes. Of greatest concern is a
continuing eustatic sea-level rise caused by melting of mid-
latitude glaciers and thermal expansion of ocean waters
(Gornitz et al., 1982~. Increasing concentrations of so-called
"greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere are likely to cause
global warming (NRC, 1983), which probably will increase the
rate of rise in eustatic sea level (NRC, 1987b).
Observed sea-level rise along a coastline equals the sum
of land subsidence and eustatic sea-level rise. This relative
sea level controls the actual position of the shoreline; the
rate of change in relative sea level affects the rate of
shoreline erosion. Tide gauges located at most major harbors
of the world are the principal source of data for changes in
local relative sea level. For the east coast of North Ameri-
ca, local rates of change vary greatly (Braatz and Aubrey,
1987~. Because Wilmington and Cape Hatteras are located on
the Carolina Platform, the value for Wilmington is represen-
tative of the whole North Carolina coast. From 1920 to
1983, the rise in relative sea level at Wilmington averaged
about .08 inch (2.0 mm) per year. Of this, .04 inch ( 1.0 mm)
per year (Braatz and Aubrey, 1987) or .05 inch (1.2 mm) per
year (Gornitz and Lebedeff, 1987) is probably the eustatic
component. The North Carolina coast, therefore, appears to
be subsiding at a rate of .03-.04 inch (0.S to 1.0 mm) per
year. The rates used in calculations that follow are .05 inch
( 1.2 mm) per year for eustatic rise and .03 inch (0.8 mm) per
year for local subsidence.
Estimated Future Trends
Eustatic sea-level change and subsidence are influenced by
anthropogenic factors. Subsidence rates increase in response
to withdrawal of fluids, such as groundwater and shallow oil
and gas (Allen and Mayuga, 1970~; eustatic sea level
increases in response to global warming (NRC, 1983~. With
continued residential development along the Outer Banks,
rates of subsidence are likely to increase due to groundwater
use. However, in the absence of solid data to the contrary,
OCR for page 34
34
Background Considerations
PROTECTION OF NAVIGATION
The original purpose of the lighthouse--to prevent ship-
wrecks on Diamond Shoals--is of little significance to the
question of how the lighthouse should be preserved. The
present light is visible on a clear night for 24 nautical miles
(44 kilometers) and is supplemented by a beacon on a "Texas
tower" 13 nautical miles (24 kilometers) seaward at the outer
edge of Diamond Shoals. Modern shipping relies chiefly upon
LORAN and other electronic navigational systems; the light-
house is chiefly of navigational value to small craft.
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE MANDATE
The National Park Service Organic Act of 1916 ( 16 U.S.C.,
Sec. 1 et seq.) charges NPS with a dual mandate to preserve
and facilitate public enjoyment of NPS facilities, namely: "to
conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and
the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the
same in such manner and by such means as will leave them
unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations."
In the case of Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, this mandate
applies equally to the lighthouse as a historical artifact of
great importance and to the beach, dunes, wetlands, and
other natural resources of the national seashore. Options
that compromise natural resources in the interest of preserv-
ing the lighthouse presumably are disfavored.
PROTECTION OF HISTORIC STRUCTURES
The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 ( 16 U.S.C.
Sec. 470) and Executive Order 1 1593 (U.S. President, 1971 )
declared a national policy favoring the preservation of his-
toric structures. Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is on the national
and state registers of historic landmarks. This public objec-
tive of preservation is articulated further in NPS Management
Policies (U.S. National Park Service, 1978~: "Historic struc-
tures constitute a major component of the cultural resources
entrusted to the National Park Service. The continued
integrity of these resources, based upon their classification,
OCR for page 35
Relevant Public Policies
35
appropriate treatment, management, and use, is a primary
concern of the Service.n
Relocation of a historic structure that individually pos-
sesses national significance in terms of criteria for evaluating
proposed national historic landmarks is not permitted under
NPS policies. Although a memorandum from the NPS asso-
ciate director for cultural resources (J. L. Rogers, 1987)
implies that relocation of Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is per-
missible, relocation would require the NPS director to waive
the guideline (R. I. Beallus, National Park Service, personal
communication, 1988~. NPS management policies further
indicate that "no historic structure shall be moved if its
adversely
affected thereby." In addition, "every effort shall be made
to reestablish its historic orientation, immediate setting, and
general relationship to its environment."
structural integrity or preservation would be
COASTAL BARRIER RECESSION
The Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982 ( 16
U.S.C., Secs. 3501-3510) demonstrated congressional recogni-
tion of the migratory and dynamic nature of coastal barriers.
The CBRA prohibits federal subsidies for infrastructures and
other actions that would encourage development of undevel-
oped, nonpublic coastal barriers. The Cape Hatteras site is
federally owned and is not within the direct purview of the
CBRA. Nevertheless, the CBRA reflects a broader national
policy. Public investment decisions should be consistent with
that policy, rather than- contradict it.
NPS generally favors letting nature take its collrs~ with
respect to sites under its auspices.
tin~uish between natural zones and h interim song
However NPS does dis-
__ . In the
latter, NPS management policy (U.S. National Park Service,
1978) provides that "control measures, if necessary, will be
predicated on thorough studies taking into account the nature
and velocity of- the shoreline processes, the threat to the
cultural resource, the significance of the cultural resource,
and alternatives . . . and how control measurets] would
impair resources and processes in natural zones." It is further
provided that "where erosion control is required by law, or
where present developments must be protected to achieve
OCR for page 36
36
Background Considerations
park management objectives, the Service will employ the most
natural appearing and effective method feasible."
State policy to similar effect is expressed in North Caro-
lina's constitution, Article XIV, Section 5 ( 1973; conservation
and protection of lands and waters); the Coastal Area Man-
agement Act of 1974 (natural shoreline preservation); and the
1987 Guidelines of its Coastal Resources Commission (policy
against permanent shoreline stabilization).
FLOOD-HAZARD MITIGATION
The National Flood Insurance Act (NFIP) of 1968 as
amended (42 U.S.C., Secs. 4001-4128) reflects a national pol-
icy that coastal and riverine flood losses should be reduced
by discouraging activity in flood-hazard areas, in contrast
with past reliance upon structural flood-control projects.
The NFIP has mapped inland and coastal flood-hazard areas
and set minimum standards for local management of new
development in such areas. Executive Order 11988 (U.S.
President, 1977) further provides that the federal government
will avoid investing in identified flood-hazard areas when
reasonable alternatives exist. Recent amendments to the
NFIP are discussed with reference to relocating the light-
house in Part II.
ENHANCEMENT OF RECREATION AND TOURISM
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is a symbol of the Outer Banks
and a focal point of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore.
Although the lighthouse is not open to the public, approxi-
mately 140,000 people visited the lighthouse site in FY 1986
( 1 .6 million visited the entire national seashore in that year).
Such tourism provides an important contribution to the econ-
omy of the area. Maintenance of continuity of the beach
along Hatteras Island in its unobstructed state is important
to the recreational function of the national seashore.
OCR for page 37
Relevant Public Policies
37
PUBLIC EDUCATION
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse and its site are resources for
public education, an important component of the NPS mission.
Topics that may be studied at the site include the maritime
and settlement history of the Outer Banks, the physical and
ecological nature of coastal barriers, the phenomena of hur-
ricanes and coastal storm hazards, and the design and opera-
tion of this lighthouse and of U.S. lighthouses generally.
FEDERAL CONSISTENCY WITH STATE LAW
The Federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as
amended (16 U.S.C., Secs. 1451 et seq.) declared "a national
interest in the effective management, beneficial use, protec-
tion, and development of the coastal zone" (16 U.S.C., Sec.
1451 ) and further noted that "important ecological, cultural,
historic, and aesthetic values in the coastal zone . . . are
being irretrievably damaged or lost." To implement national
coastal policy, the act facilitated development of state
coastal zone management programs under federal guidelines
and partial funding and provided that "each federal agency
conducting or supporting activities directly affecting the
coastal zone shall conduct or support those activities in a
manner which is, to the maximum extent practicable, consis-
tent with approved state management programs" ( 16 U.S.C.,
Sec. 1456 (c) ( 1~. In addition, state law predating the
Coastal Zone Management Act may regulate activities on fed-
eral coastal lands (California Coastal Commission et al.,
1987~.
WETLANDS PROTECTION
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C., Sec. 1344)
reflects a broad policy favoring the protection of tidal and
freshwater wetlands and establishes a permit program to reg-
ulate dredging or filling of wetlands under the joint adminis-
tration of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. In general, disturbance of
natural wetlands is discouraged if a suitable, nonwetland site
OCR for page 38
38
Background Considerations
is available. Executive Order 11990 (U.S. President, 1 977)
similarly prohibits federal actions that disturb wetlands if
alternative sites are available.
ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS
Since the Flood Control Act of 1936 (33 U.S.C., Sec. 701 a
et seq.), Congress has required that certain flood-control and
other water-resource projects be justified by a cost/benefit
analysis demonstrating that anticipated benefits would exceed
costs "to whomsoever they may accrue." The requirement for
a cost/benefit analysis applies chiefly to projects proposed by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and certain other federal
construction agencies but not to NPS. Although a proposed
seawall/revetment would be constructed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, NPS is the deciding agency, and a cost/
benefit analysis is not required. Nevertheless, this long-
standing provision indicates the importance of selecting an
option whose anticipated short- and long-term benefits are
optimal compared with short- and long-term costs.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Numerous statutes embody a federal policy of commitment
to environmental protection. For example, Section 101 of the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 recognized "the
profound impact of man's activity on the interrelations of all
components of the natural environment" and declared a fed-
eral policy to "assure for all Americans safe, healthful, pro-
ductive~ and aesthetically and culturally pleasing surround-
~ngs; preserve important n~stor~c, cultural, and natural aspects
-` -I --' ~ -" The act requires an environmental
impact statement be prepared concerning any "major federal
action significantly affecting
environment" (Section 102 Iced.
The foregoing policies do not suggest the most favorable
option for the preservation of the lighthouse. Indeed, poli-
cies do conflict as applied to the problem. For instance, the
need to preserve a historic structure may conflict with a
laissez faire approach to coastal barrier erosion. In addition,
..
()I U ur Ila~luna1 north,.
the quality of the human
OCR for page 39
Relevant Public Policies
39
policy-oriented criteria to select a preferred option must be
viewed in light of scientific, engineering, and other technical
factors.
USE AND PROTECTION OF THE COAST
nears, 1971 )
The United States has 80,560 miles (129,621 kilometers) of
coast excluding the Great Lakes, of which 19,240 miles
(30,957 kilometers) is erosional (U.S. Army Corps of Engi
At present, the sea is rising, so the shoreline
is moving landward (May et al., 1983~. This natural compres-
sion from the sea clashes with outward demographic growth
and development pressure in the coastal zone; the population
of coastal areas has grown faster than that of the U.S. as a
whole (West, 1987), and coastal development has increased
dramatically in the past few decades (Dolan and Lins, 1986;
Nordstrom, 1987~. Population pressure on the coast is a
severe test of environmental and spatial planning capacities
(Platt et al., 1987~.
An array of federal statutes and regulations govern the
development and protection of the coast as well as the con-
tiguous marine areas. North Carolina has adopted a singular
approach to its migratory coastline: its policy is to discour-
age attempts at permanent stabilization of the shore. Not-
withstanding these measures and historic concern for the
American coast, the nation and the coastal states have yet to
formulate an adequate response to the increasing problems of
a shore moving landward and a population moving seaward.
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse stands on the line of compres-
sion. Resolution of its future might act as a signal to the
country of the problems confronting the coast and illuminate
approaches to solving the problems of living with a rising
sea.
OCR for page 40
OCR for page 41
Concepts of Historic Preservation
Sande ( 1984) describes the purposes of historic preserva-
tion as continuity--the conservation of physical evidence of
restoration and inter
pretation; plausibility--the recreation of a true feeling of an
earlier time; and meaning--the hopes, dreams, and satisfac-
tions nurtured in those who visit the site.
From the standpoints of continuity and historic integrity,
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse ideally should be preserved at its
original site. The tower first was constructed 1,500 feet (460
meters) from the ocean, but since 1919, it has been close to
the water's edge; preservationists have the choice of which
era to restore.
Plausibility and meaning depend on nonscientific senti-
ment. Yet, they are a force behind the decision to save the
lighthouse. Cape Hatteras Lighthouse stands about 200 feet
(61 meters) tall on a flat and narrow island, is painted with
black and white stripes, and has a rotating beacon of 250,000
candlepower (U.S. Coast Guard, 1971~. It is a forceful pres-
ence in the surrounding community and can be seen from
great distance on land and at sea.
the past; integrity--the accuracy of
Citizens of Hatteras
Island and many visitors want to save the lighthouse at its
original site for as long as possible. However, this might not
be a realistic, long-term solution to preservation.
Historic preservation has been a mission of the National
Park Service since its beginning. The National Park Service
Act of 1916 ( 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1 et seq.) stated that the
purpose of the agency is "to conserve the scenery and the
natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to
41
OCR for page 42
42
Background Considerations
provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and
by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the
The word "historic" was
Horace Albright, second director of
the Nob and a oratter of the legislation, explained that he
and Stephen Mather, the first director, always envisioned the
inclusion of historic parks and sites in the NPS domain
(Albright, 197 1~.
The election of Franklin D
enjoyment ot tuture generations.
included deliberately.
~ . . . . . .
Roosevelt as president
afforded an opportunity to realize this vision. Roosevelt
issued a presidential order transferring to NPS more than 60
national battlefields, national monuments, and other historic
sites then under the care of other government agencies.
In 1935, the Historic Sites, Buildings, and Antiquities Act
(16 U.S.C. Sees. 461-467) broadened the role of NPS in his-
toric preservation.
It authorized the Historic American
Buildings Survey, the Historic American Engineering Record,
and the National Survey of Historic Sites. It also provided
for establishment of national historic sites, preservation of
properties "of national historic or archeological significance,"
and designation of national historic landmarks.
The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 ( 16 U.S.C.
Sec. 470) involved NPS in the preservation of historic and
archeological sites at the state and local level. The act
stated a national policy for historic preservation by providing
for the expansion of the National Register of Historic Places,
matching grants to the states and the National Trust, and
the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. The act
defined historic preservation as "the protection, rehabilita-
tion, restoration, and reconstruction of districts, sites, build-
ings, structures, and objects significant in American history,
architecture, archeology, and culture." Congress amended the
act in 1980 (94 Stat. 2987), expanding the roles of federal,
state, local, and private sectors and providing new historic
preservation mandates for federal land managers. Numerous
other laws and executive orders affect the preservation of
historic or archeological properties and apply to NPS.
A 1987 list of all "water-related" properties on the
National Register of Historic Places comprises 750 entries,
approximately half of which are historic vessels. Of the
. · .
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Concepts of Historic Preservation
43
remaining half, most are lighthouses or lifesaving stations.
It is reasonable to assume that no more than seven or eight
individual historic coastal properties might be endangered by
rising sea level and erosion during the coming years.
A primary threat to all historic structures is lack of funds
and associated neglect. A recent report (U.S. Department of
Interior, 1987) estimates that $100 million is needed to repair
historic structures in the national parks administered by the
Southeast region alone. Because of past and recent develop-
ment patterns along the barrier islands and ocean bluffs,
historic structures probably are not considered the most
pressing public policy issue posed by erosion and rising sea
levels. Rather, beach houses and roads are pressing con-
cerns, followed by concern for coastal cities.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
historic preservation
