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ELI:C07RTC~ PROPERTIES OF OTTER
W. A. Yager
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hi1 l,, N. I.
T. Introduction
The Subject of the Electrical Properties of Matter is so
general and broad in scope that one reviewing it is immediately
faced smith the problem of ,.~'ha~c material to include and karat to
re ject. This sorting-out process is to some extent inf luenced by
the T,ersonal equation and refit ects the reviewer' ~ own interest.
In Arriving this section of the Digest ~ an at~Gem~t has been made
to mace the emphasis an the physical aspects of dielectric be_
. . .
havior Bind on the relation between dielectric behavior and structure.
The various aspects of microwave technology are also Stressed in
view of the nearness of this flied and the growing interest in di-
electric investigations at micro rare frequencies a
- The volume of literature on dielectrics and related
sub jects for 1946 was ~ arge. Research and development in this
field was stimulated and actively pursued during the ~.~ and
many laboratories and industrial concerns are continuing their
ir~ves&Gigations on a peace_tirne basis. A considerable amount of
classified material accumulated during the war was published in
1946 but much still remains in as yet unpublished reports.
Several dielectric symposia were her ~ last year. The
London branches of the Royal Institute of, Chemistry and the
Institute of Physics held a Joint meeting aid the Royal Institute
on March 20th at which 'Ghe fields of physical theory, chemical
re~arati on and industrial application of dielectrics severe broadly
surreys The Fawaday Society sponsored a symposium on dielec-
trice at the Wills Physical Institute at Bristol, April 24-26th.
General surreys and many original papers on the present state
and immediate trends of ~hysical-chemica' and physical research
in dielectrics severe presented at this meeting. A very good re-
sume of these two meetings entliled Dielectrics in Theory and
Application appeared in Nature. New Dielectric and Insulating
Materials in Radio Engineering was the topic for discussion at
a meeting of the Patio Section of the Institute of Electrical
Engineers (London) on May 2Ist. A retriever of this discussion on
near developments in Plastic and ceramic dielectrics appeared in
Engineering and also in Engineer .
Three dielectric symposia revere held in this country.
Five Scrapers , Plastic Compositions for Dielectric Application,,
High Dielectric Constant Ceramics, Paper Capacitors Containing
~ ~ _
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ChIorinated Tm~regnants, Dielectric Constants of Dimethgl Silo-
~ane Poly!ners, Id Polystyrene Plastics as High Frequency Di-
elect~ice, 'were presented at the April Meeting of the American
Chemical Society at Atlantic Giber. This program was ranged
in cooperation High the Committee of Chemistry of the Conference
on Electrical Insulation, National Research Council. The newly
organized Electric Insulation Division of the Electrochemical
130cielg~ sponsored a symposium on New Plastic Insulators at the
Both General Meeting of the Society at Toronto, October 16_19th
at which the following papers were presented: Thermoset~cing Vinyl
Polymers (90~9), Molding Material preforms at Radio Frequencies
(90-13), The Dielectric Properties of Phenolic Resins and Molded
Compositions (90~3), Introduction to Silicon Che~nistr~r (90-18),
Silicones as Electrical Insulating Materials (90_16), Properties
of PolYtetrafluorethyler~e of Interest to the Electrical Industry
(90-15), Polyethylene (~36 ), The Q-Me~Ger f or Dielectric
Measure~nenta on Polyethylene arid Other Plastice at Frequencies
up to 50 me/sec. (90-~), and Styrene Copolymer Solvent Reacting
Varnishes - Foaterite {90_24~. The Preprint number is given in
arentheois. These papers will be published in the forthcoming
Transactions of the Electrochemical Society.
The conference on Electrical Insulation, National
Research Council has resumed its activities by ho1 cling a meeting
at Baltimore, November 7-9th. The papers user e divided into two
groups: one dealing ·.'rith Progress in Fundamental Research and
the Development of blear Materials, the Decor High Measurement
Technique and Application of Dielectrics. The first group in-
cluded: a survey Aver on Dielectric Constant and ~e followed
by papers on Selects ve Absorption of Microwaves by Polar Stators,
d Dielectric Absorntion of Solutions of Electrolytes in Solvents
of Lo`' Dielectric Constant; a survey pacer on Ferroelectric
Dielectrics followed by Darers on Development of Titanta Di
.
electrics, and Barium Titana~.te and Barium Strontium Titanate as
Non-Linear Dielectrics; a survey paper on Plastics with papers
on Solvent Reactive Astonishes, Silicones, and Teflon; and, a
survey paper on Conductivity and Breakdown with papers on
Electro~Che~nical Breakdowns of Boo id Insulation, and Conduction
and Bre~Xdo,~ in High Vacuum. The second group consisted of 19
pacers as follows: Dielectric Constant and Lo98 Measurements
from ~ cycle to Shiv cycles; two papers on Dielectric Measurements
at Microwave Frequencies; Modification of the Resonant Cavity
Method for Dielectric Measurements at a Fixed Frequency; a
Resonant Cavity Method for Dielectric Measurements at 300 mc/sec.;
Dielectric Heating- The Measurement of Loas Under Rising Tem-
perature; Electrical Identity Test for Plasticizers of the Type
Used in Polyvinyl Chloride Plastics; New Instrumentation and
Uni_direction Direct_Current Measurement; The Significance of
Current_Time Curves in Determining Dielectric Properties; In-
-aulation Resi=tar~ce Measurements smith Particular Reference to
Charging Currerit Errors; Use of the Scale Model Method in De-
termining O,rerheat~ng of Cables; Corona Starting Voltage
Measurements' a survey Hater on Developments in Microwave Cables;
a survey Baser on Technic ques and Problems in the Production and
Development of Condensers; Effect of Asphalt as a contamination
- 2 -
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in Oil and in Impregnated Paper; The Use of a Redid D.C. Life
quest in the Evaluation of Capacitor Paper; Vitreous Ceramic
Compositions; Ceramic Sheet Condensers; and Righ Altitude
Flashover and Corona Correction on Ceramic Bushings. Abstracts
of these Daters will appear in a forthcoming report of the
Conf erence .
~ ' ~
A few parers have appeared dealing with liquids, ionized
.
gases, crystals and metals.
The influence of the concentration and mobility of ions
on dielectric los s of ~ nsulating oils has been investigated by
Rang . Re concludes that provided there is no dipole loss, the
relatiorlship between dielectric loas, W. and viscosity, I, of an
insulating oil may be exceeded as log W = A-B log, enrich points
out that the mobility of ions is an important factor in the di-
elec1;ric loss of an inking oil. Thermal agitation, which
causes further dissociation of the oil, increases the dielectric
1 oss by increasing the number cuff ions present. The addition of
deteriorated oil rabidly increases the dielectric loss thus
shoaling that this ~ oss is a function of the concentration or
content of free ions in the oil. An increase in the concentration
of ions in en oil may result in a critical decrease in dielectric
Toss it the viscosity is increased to the point where the mobility
of the ions is decreased relatively more than -the ion concentration
is increased. Finally, it is concluded that if non-~ol ar oils of
the same degree of "electrical purity" are used for low frequency
applications where the floss of the liquid is unimportant, the of]
of higher viscosity is ,3refera~b~e from the standpoint of poorer
hi electric los ~ .
Gonick6a has obtained data for the osmotic behavior,
conductance, bend relative viscosity of solutions of hexanolamine
ca~r~ylate and diiso~ro~y~amine crate and has determined the
concentration of free cations in the former Re concludes that
hexanolamine carry ate associe.tes fire t ~Q neutral ion pairs
f°~°~b by secondary association to col~oid. In a later cater,
Gonick conceders the relation between Stokers law and the
imiting conductance of organic ions. Equations are proposed
for expressing the limiting ionic cor.ductances of organic ions
in terms of CHUB groups cr their equiva:1 ents for monobasic and
dibasic ~.li~hatic carboxylic acids, ali~hatic primary, secondary
and tertiary am.ines end ali~hatic divines. Hydration through
hydrogen bonding increases the ionic conductances as a result
of the reduction of the van der Cal' s radius of the group in-
~ro~ red . The effective " spherical volumes " as Cal cul ated by
Stokers low severe founcr to agree Cal osely with the volumes cal-
culated from. independent date., and are 'Ghought to be a~croxi-
mutely the same as their true ~rolurnes. With other series these
values differ from the true volumes. The limiting cor~ductances
of severer alkyd cerboxylate ions vrere calculated .! ma- method
corps proposed for determining the en,3rox.ima~ce CH2 eoui~ralents of
- 3 -
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substituted methyl enes anci ethyl enes .
The electrical conductances of aqueous solutions of
r~ote~sium meta~eriodate and potassium r~errhenate were measured
by Jones7 over the concentration range 0.0004 m to approximate
s~.~uration. The lin~i~cing conauctences were determined by three
tr~ecendent ~r.ethod.s with sP~tis~actory agreement. The limiting
cond~'lcta~.ces of the anions were determined by use of the reco-^ded
revue for the K ton e.ncl the ~.e~sured values for the salts from
this in~resti~P.tion. The values acc elated for ~0 are 127.90 for
the metP.r)eriodete and 128.20 for the ~errhenate with an accuracy
betided to be ~ 0~07 conductance unite. The fol~o:~ng values
f or the 2nobilitles ,~rere obtained: metaneriodate ion - 54.38
0~07 ond ~errhena~re ion - 54~68 ~ .07.
P!alstion and '-oerr8 have investigated the electrical
conductivity of hexed _ and dodecyl _ arnn~onium chlorides in pure
coaler, pure ethanol and in various concentration of aqueous
e~ch?.nol. The ads it' on of ethanol to aqueous solu~Gi one of he~:yl-
em-.oniur~ chloride ].o~Ters the conductivity at all concentrations
investigated. The conductivitles of concentrated soluti one of
dodecylam~onium chloride are increased by the addition of small
amounts of alcohol. The addition of alcohol to more dilute
solutions of this salt 1P accompanied by an irregular decrease
in the conductivities. The difference in behavior of these two
salts is ascribed to micel le formation in solutions of dodecyl-
ammonium ch1 oride. Mlcelle Coronation is completely inhibited
by the addition of large amounts of alcohol. The behavior of
these salts in the solvents used is discussed in the light, of
the present micel le theory.
The formation of ionized water films on dielectrics
under-condition of high humidity was studied by Field e Wher.
a dielectric is placed in a saturated atmosphere, art ionized
film of fretter forms on the surface whose conductance at the er]
of one minute is Thin a factor of 10 of its equilibrium value
which is usually Chained in an hour. This ea,uilibrium con-
ductance ranges from loo micromhos for. ordinary glass and quartz
to er,~roximately zero for silicone resins, silicone _ treated
g1 ~ n and hydrocarbon pries. Time _ rely curves are
shown for Polystyrene, Polyethylene, quartz, mica and asbestos
filled ohenolics, polyamide, s'reati~Ge and mica. Ce7llllose
acetate butyrete ~neint~-ins ~ high resisti~ri~cy even after at'_
sorbing a~ rater. The ~e~axatior~ frequency for dielectric
Colors zatior~ shears to be in the audits e range .
Chau~hur~; ~ studied the effect of the change in the
concentration of Acne near the electrode surface upon the corl-
ductivities or mobs ~ ~ ties of lone in strorl~ electrolytes and
deduced an equation for the conductivity of electrolytes. It
is shown the t Onnager' s equation is a limiting equation for low
concentrations of electrolytes, lower voltages and high frequencies
The variation of the c~nducti~rity Keith varying voltage and con-
centretions and ureter dirferen~c conditions is discussed.
- 4 _
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Fox\} investiga~Ged the effect of ultrasonic waves on
the conductivity of Bait solutions. Adiabatic compression raises
the conductivity of an aqueous sal1; solution because of direct
pressure influences and of increase in temperature e An ultrasonic
A.
wave, therefore, modifies periodically the conductivity of the
medium. If a filament of current passes normal to the wave prom
r~agation, the Brave train produces under proper conditions an
alternating potential Rich can be picked up. A convenient re-
ceiver can be constructed which indicates absolute intensity and
can be used for the investigation of ultrasonic fields in water
provided the frequency is not above ~ .5 me e
Ogg has reported a new effect in metal_am~nonia solu_
lions which is a~eribed to the Physical interaction of electrons
with liquid dielectric media. Re found that extremely dilute
liquid asnmonta solutions of metallic solid show a marked in-
crease in electrical! conductivity upon irradiation ~.~rith visible
light. This effect was observed in the temperature range _35 to
-7500. and the phenomenon is discussed ore the basis of quantum_
mechanical considerations. The absorption spectrum and magnetic
susceptibilities of meter ammonia solutions are in at least quali-
tati~re agreement with theory. In a second paner, Ogg)3 outlines
briefly the theoretical considerations which preceded the e~eri-
mental discoveries relating to the properties of metal ammonia
solutions. Weissm.an has observed the de~x~ase in resistance
enrich occurs when a solution of sodium in ~i.quld ammonia, in a
concentration range which yields two liquid phases, is rapidly
frozen as reported by C}gg. Rapid freezing of solutions of methyl_
amine to which several per cent of ammonia has been added seas
found to produce similar changes in resistances When a 0.05N
solution of potassium in JO to ~ methylamine ammonia was rapidly
chilled. frown 260 ° to 90° E. and then "heal edit at 1 70°E, the
resistance propped from a Prague of 700 ohms at the highest Hem_
-
Erasure to a steady value of OR ohm in the solid state.
The changes in the electrical conduc~Givities arid vis-
cosities smith temperature of the negatively charged colloidal
solutions of ferric venede.te' mo~ydate,, tunstate, borate, ar_
senate and phosphate have been investigated by Mushran and
Prakesh\S. The temperatures of zero conductance of the vari our
solutions have been obtained by extrapolating the conductance
versus temperature curves to zero conductance. Values lying
between -16° and -2~3~5°Co were found. The temperature coeffi-
ciente of conductivity of the various solutions have been ce.~-
cul ated and it is observed I the values are a] ''rays ~ es ~ chart
2< of the conductences at 35°C. The temperatures or infinite
viscosity for these solu~Gions were ~ike~.rise obtained by extra_
Orion of the inverse viscosity versus temperature curves.
These temperatures lie between _17° and _28°~. It is concluded
that the temperatures of zero conc~,uctance of the various solutions
. ~
are nearly the same as those of infinite Viscosity.
I:x~eriments on the Hill effect by Kelabukho~rl6 show
- 5 _
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that ~ crystals saturated stitch iodine possess an electronic
conductance. A mechanism of such a conductance is suggested
Tuna is used to explain previously observed results for KI
crystals in a strong electric field. The electrical conductivity
of. twenty singe e crystals of SiC have been measured by Busch
A sensitive null method using a Alfferential gal manometer loran
used to test Ohm's law. For currents between 10-5 and a~nroz:l-
m~te 1 ampere per sq. cm. t the law was found to hold within
experimental error. No volume rectifying effect was observed.
A vacuum tube voltmeter was used. to measure the temperature
dependence of the cond~ucti~rity between 80 and 1400°E. Both the
conduc~Givi~cy and the temperature variation are re~roclucible for
the same crystal but wlae hart ations were observed be~c~'een dif-
ferent crystals At room temperature, the conductivity varies
between 5 x 10-13 e.nd 5 reciprocal ohms/c!n. At high t.emcerature,
the conductivity goes through a maximum. At sufficiently low
temperatures, t,`'o temperature regions were found in ditch log
conductivity is a linear function of the reciprocal temperature,
the Diodes of the lines in the two regions being different. The
theory of disordered crystal ~ is applied go the semi_conductor
problem .
Morton)8 demonstrated that cat culation of the ioniza-
~cion current in a gaseous discharge by means of the classical
Townsend equati on is likely to lead to large errors when the
field distribution is non_uniform. A differential-difference
equation for the electron current as a function of the electron
energy aria distance from the cathode is derived an, the ioniza-
tion current is calculated for ~ restricted range of pressure
and applied frontage. The results vrere found to agree with
neesurea current Are thin the range There the assumed functions
apply.
The conduction and dlsoersi~n of l onlzed gases at high
frequencies were studied by Margenau 9. Re derived a distal_
button 1~w for the energy of electrons in a high frequency
electromagnetic fl eld by kinetic theory methods. By means of
this la1'`7, the currents density and the complex conductivity are
calculated as functions of electron den.si!X treasure and fre_
quency of the field. The real Cart of the conductivity has a
maximum for gas pressures or frequencies such that the mean free
path of an electron is approximately equal to the bellow of the
field. From the complex conductivity the dielectric constant
of the medium, its index of refraction and its extinction co_
efficient are deducecl. The results are applicable in micro-
~ra~re res earche ~ and in ionospher e ~rob] ems .
Although perhaps a little far afield from dielectrics,
the electrical resistance of metals at high frequency is never-
theleas an important consideration in the design of high frequency
test equipment. The electrical resistance of iron wires =d
ermalloy strips ~,rere measured by Smith20 and his collaborators
ire the frequency range from l.5 to 6 me. Empirical equations
OCR for page 7
obtained are compared With ex' sting theoretical equations derived
on the assumption of constant permeability. Pip~ard2) determined
the skin resistance, R. of suora-conducting tin and mercury at a
frequency of 1200 me. relative to Rn for the normal metal Just
above the transition point. A plot of R/Rn is given for both metals
in the temperature range 2.0 _ 4.2°~. This ratio is less than
0.01 for mercury all 3. 7°K . , and for tin at 2.6OR ~ and ri ses steeply
to ~ . O at the transition temperatures ~
Partington22 has prepared electrets by allowing different
types of dielectric materials to got ~ dify in a field of a~proxi-
m~tely 10,000 v/cm. bet~.~reen into parallel metal electrodes, the
vo] tage being maintained f or about 2 hours. Measurements of both
the anode and cathode surface charges were taken from time to time
using a Lindemann electrometer. Typical charge-time curves for
electrets prepared from4G~ro different grades of prime yellow car-
n?~be. wax, from rosin, and from a mixture of rosin~and carnauba
wax are shown and d! acumen.
IT B. Dielectric Constant and Dielectric Lose
A number of papers appeared last year dealing with din
en echoic logs mechanisms and the dielectric ~?ro~erties of Sari ous
gases, liqulde and solids. Many of these fall into the categories
covered by other sections of the Digest and hence are omitted here.
Some of there, hoverer, particularly those dealing ~.~rith the di-
en ectric behavior of the ~citanates, represent important contri-
b~ions to the uncleretanding of the correlation between dielectric
properties and structure. In such cases, it was considered worth_
.
'Chile to risk duplication and retried the more important conclusions
troth the emphasis ple.ced on the ch~rsical and st~c~cura~ aspects of
the investigation.
Gros s and Denard have shown by
curves, that ~ permanent charge may be
of carnaub& wax by charging it at an e]
cooling to R 1 offer temperature. _ ~v ~
is reco~rerer1 which cou15 be stored at the Coverer temperature, the
remainder being "frozen in". By mear~s of a graphical analysis of
-the d~gche.rge course lt curves using the method of Cole and Cole,
Field shows the t the temperature coefficient of all three Earl
7,ati on ~era.meterS ~ - change in dielectric constant, relaxati on tine
and storage coeds ici ent are all ~o~iti~re. This beha~rio~ is in
c ~n~crast to corresponding negative values for morn! dipol e pol ari _
7.~' one. Similar experiments with capacity ~ made of oil-fir led
Barer, glass, steatite, and mica liked shower ~ positive tem
oe~ature coefficient of dielectric constant and a "frozen in''
charge ',hen the color is cooled. Field concludes that it
seems reasonable to expect similar behavior for ocher material s
in 'which the in~ertaciP1 type polarization is important.
means or current-time
savored in a capacitor Bade
evated temperature and then
On discharge. only that charge
vitro ev and Jurevich24 have modified Debye's dispersion
fr3rmu1?.s to take into account the inertia of rote-~Gion- vibrational
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
electronic ind
notion of dipole canticles. As a consequence, the electrical con-
dUCtlYity yes through ~ maximum which increasing frequency in-
stead of approaching a limiting value as required by the formulae
when the effect of inertia is neglected. Snoek and Pre 5 describe
the atter_effect (relaxation) phenomena enrich are the cause of the
d' en ectric losee.s in dielectrics and of at leapt pert of the 1GSSeS
in ferromagnetic substances. The close analogy and the connection
beeper el ectrice.1 and megne~sic aft~er-ef~ect
behavior of liquids of low molecular Freight. The relation between
~ and ~ depends on the nature of the Bipolar group. In mixtures of
geranio! and medicinal naraffin,.t is little changed over that for
Sure gerantol despite a nine fold increase in ~ at _27°C. In mi';-
tures of geraniol in n-he~tane, it was observed that ~ and ~ de_
grease but there arrears to be no correlation in the activation
.
energies deri~red from the data. In these mixtures, ~ is not as
decisive a factor for ~ as would be expected from Debye8s theory.
One conclusior~ is that the mechanism of viscous flow of these long
chain alcohols changes with rise in temperature.
'2 ~
Osiers has applied the Onsager_Kirkwood theory of di-
electric polarization of polar liquids to solutions of Solar
molecules . A correlati on parameter, Ashore value differing from
unity is a measure of the hindering effect of a molecule on its
neighbors, is calculated for Solutions of polar molec ales in non-
nolar solvents. This parameter is a direct measure of the extent
and nature of molecular association. Al ~ of the systems examined
shower the same general behavior: parallel association of dipoles
in solutions of large concentrations of the polar components and
antinarallel association at some lower concentration. At extreme-
ly dilute solutions, the dipoles become free of each other. Low-
ering the temperature enhances both parallel and antiparal~el
associations, the latter arrangement becomes more Pronounced at
lower concentrations. Low concentrations of ~Tari¢~us polar mole-
cures in crater generally alter the dielectric constant of the
crater in a predictable manner. However, dioxane lowers the di-
electric constant of crater much more than predicted by theory,
indicating strong interaction with water.
The variation of the dielectric constant of the nl-ohase
of p 9 ~'~azoxyaniso] by magnetic fields has been investigated by
Maier32. The change in dielectric constant in longitudinal (I-)
and transverse (T) magnetic fields up to 5000 gauss wee determined
and it was found that the ratio T/L is not -~/2 as predicted but
rather -~/10. By means of X-raya, it is demonstrated that phi a
difference is due to orientation in the field free state which in
turn is largely due to convection currents. A horizontal tem_
Erasure gradient of O.Io/cm. produces almost complete rotation.
This result invalidates existing data on the dielectri c constant
as evidence for or against- the Disarm theory. The basic aesump:tion
of the a warm theory that the normal state of a cl-~hase is com_
repletely random is not yet Proven.
Several comprehensive Caners have been riven ~ eel ing
with the dielectric ~ror~ertieg of solic dielectrics. One of these
is the contribution of Severs 3 whose gaper on the Relation
Between the Po,¢-er Factor an] the Temnera~Gure Coeffici ent of the
Dielectric Constant of Sol ice. Die, ectrics consists of five carts
Gevers has measured tan ~ and Ac (temperature coefficient of
capacity) or At (temperature coefficient of dielectric constant)
for a number of solid dielectrics over a aside range of tem~eratur
and frequency . Thes e me&suremen~Gs hare shown that in general
die' ectri can having a large T.C. (tem~era~Gure coefficient) also
_ 9 _
e
have a large ~ra3..ue of tan ~ whereas dielectrics having a small
T.C ~ al so hare a small value of tan ~ . A remarkable fact is
that the ratio of An to the value of tan ~ at a given temperature
croci frequency is nearly the same for most Delia dielectrics. At
20°C. and over a elide range of frequencies, the fold owing re_
Cation was found to hold: And Ac - 0.06 tan ~ . Gevers points
out that it is impossible to explain this behavior on the basis
of existing theories . In Part ~ of thi ~ report a summary is
given of several well knows. theories concerning the causes of
the dielectric loa ses and A£ of ionic crystals . Arguments are
given to show that these theories are not able to explain the
above relation and must, therefore, be replaced by a new one.
part T] given a critical Luminary of avail able data in the liter-
ature on tan ~ and Ac or A£ restricted to solid clielectrice and
radi o frequencies. As far as doe sible ,, the causes of the di-
electric losses are inclicated. From this summary, Severs con-
cludes that the data found in the literature is not affrays re_
liable and is insufficient to check adequately the Proposed
relation bet~reer~ AC and tango Revere, therefore, found it
necessary to repeat all measurements as a function of temperature
and frequency. Part ITI explains Severs' never theory about di
electric losses and the temperature coeffici ent from 'which the
proposed relation above follows in a natural prays The negative
T.C. of some dielectrics (i.e., TiO2 and polystyrene) is ex_
claimed from the fact that these solids either have a high di-
electric constant or a high temperature coefficient of thermal
expansion. Another conclusion from Ge~rerst theory which is
confirmed by experiment is the existence of a similarity Grin_
ci~le. Finally in Part TIT some remark" are given concerning
the dielectric Properties of mixtures of dielectrics. The method
of measuring tan it and A£ of dielectrics and the apparatus used
for these measurements are described ~ n Part TV. Sources of error
and the corrections to be applied are indicat,ea. With the ap-
naratua described, the Ac of condensers up to 1000 muff. can be
measured at a great number of frequencies in the range from
100 kc. up to 40 me. and at temperatures ranging from 90° to
450°R. The results of ten S and As measurements as a function
of ~ em~era~re and frequency are given in Part; V. For some
. -
materlals the results are treated in detail. The effect of
admixtures of a small amount of a foreign substance on the di-
e'ectric losses is described. It is shown that al ~ the reach FIGS
of the experiments are in accordance with the new theory. Es-
Specially the result that the ratio of Ac to ten S has a definite
value (~..bout 0~06) for many dielectrics is of particular im-
nor~Gance. Tt is pointed out that the nature of the dielectric
loss mechanism cannot be deduced from the measurements of tanS
and As only; kno'viedge of the chemical composition and the
structure of the substance under consideration is inflisnensib~ e .
Quartz, mica, various glasses, porcelain, mycalex, marble,
ebonite, wood, celluloid, Philite, Pertinex and ~Tovotext are
among the materials studied.
A reader by StAger34 and his associates deals with
_ 10
organic insulating materials in electrical engineering. This
Her is primarily concerned ''rith the die1 ectric properties of
larnina1;ed structures . The Jie1 ectric ~ronerti es of d.ipolew
solids is discussed by Fr~hlich35. Ball a36 found that the di_
electric constant of cotton fibers dried at IGO°C. is about 6
and 3 in the longitudinal and transverse di Sections respectively.
Measurements were also made as a functi on of moisture content
in both direct) ons un to about 105 of the dry weigh1; at 100°CO
..
The experimental procedure and test equipment are described. A
short table of the 60 cycle poorer factor at various temperatures
from 20° to 100°c. and of the dielectric cores Ant of various
materials alas Published in the Electric li~orId~ ~ ~
Schallamach38 reported dielectric dispersion in crys-
ta1line aii~o~ro~yl ketone. Data are given for the dielectric
constant of this material at lol2 mcO an] 20.4 tic. and for the
dielectric loss factor at 1.12, 4.4 and 20.4 mc. over the tem_
erasure range _150 to +20°Co When Roaching the M.P. (-72~5
to -75.5°C.) from higher temperatures, both ea and £~' increase,
the rise of £~' indicating incipient anomal ous dispersion. The
iallid sunerc cola generally to about -80°C O an] then crystal_
lization is accompanied by ~ sharp drop in c' to a value enrich
is still appreciably higher then the optical Braille arid is Be_
Dependent on frequency. Anomalous dispersion is observed in the
crystalline state as evidenced by loss factor maxima. It is
tentatively suggested that branching of the molecu] e causes a
crystal lattice somewhat looser than that of straight ketones
and thus reduces the in~Gra-molecular forces sufficiently to
allow restricted molecular rotation.
Mason39 has nerd the elastic, ~piezoelectric and
d' electric constants of NR4H2PO*(ADP) and KH2PO`(KDP) crystals
through temperature ranges dn;~m to the curia temperatures. The
dies ectric properties of KDP agree Well Irish the theory pre-
sented by Sl&ter based on the interaction of the hydrogen bonds
Perish the PO4 ions. ADP undergoes a transition at _125°C. at
*which the crystal fractures. This transition is probably not
connected enrich the H2PO~, hydrogen bond system which controls
the dielectric and piezoelectric properties for these lie on
smooth curares Rich do not change clone as the transition is
encroached. It is suggested that two separate mnd independent
hydrogen bond systems awe involved in ADP. The transition axed
specific heat anomaly appear to be connected witch hydrogen
b ond ~ be Aloe e n the ~ and i: he ~ of the PO. i on s Forte r e as the di_
e' ectric and ~ie%oelectric properties are control 7 ed by the
}I2PO4 hydrogen bonds.
Mason O has also investigated the elastic ~ niezo-
electric and die: ectric properties of sodium chlorate arid sodium
bromide otter ~ wide temperature range. At high tem~era~Gures,
the dielectric end ~iezoelectric constants increase and in-
dice.te the presence of a trans~ormati on point; which occurs at
~ temperature slightly higher then the melting point. A large
_ 11 -
07. Winchell, A.
Nov. ( 1946 ~
08. And.ers ~n, A.
Aug. ~ ~ 946 ~
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30-3, Mar. t1946)
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Jen. ( 1947 )
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125.
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139. Guarrera, J. J., Electronic Ind., 5, 80_2, 120_2, Mar. (1946)
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70, 300_ 7
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172. Good, W. E. ~ Phye. Rev. ~ 70, 213, (1946)
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Doles D. A. ~ and Good,, W. E. ~ Phys. Rev. ~ 70, 9799 Dec.
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180. 13lr3~e, J. Bo, Nature, 15B, 671-2, Nov. (1946)
181. Purcell, E. M. and others , Phys . Rev . , 69, 37-8, Jan . ( 1946 )
189?o Torrey, R. C. Purcell, E. M. and Pound, R. V. g Phyo, Rev.,
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185. Block F. ,, Hansen,, W. W. and Packard, M., Phys. Rev. ~ 69
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block, Fo, EIaIl63eng Wo W. and Packard, M., Phys. Rev., 70
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186 . Frenkel, J ., J. PHYB ., U. S. S .R., 9, No. 4, 299_304 ( 1945 )
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187~.deVri jer F. W., Volger, J. and Gorter, C. J., Physica,
11, 41~8 (1946)
188. Griffiths, J. lI. E., Nature, 158, 670-1, Nov. (lg46)
189. Rittel, G., Phys. Rev., 71, 270-1, Peb. 15 (1947)
190. TIughes, R. K., Phys. Rev., 70, 570_1, Oct. (1946)
191. Maddock, A. J., J. Sci. Instr., 23, 165_73, Aug. (1946)
192. Winlund, E. S., Elec. World, 126; 80, Aug. 3; 98, Aug. 17;
84, Aug. 31 (1946 )
193. Bock, A. P., Electronics, 20, 126, Jan. (1947)
194. Osborn, H. B., Jr., Elec. Contracting, 45, 81_4, 86, 88,
Jan. (1946); 113_6, 118, 120, Feb. (194~
195. lIartshorn, L., Mature, 157, 607-10, May (1946'
l9B. Cable J. W. j Elec. Contracting, 45, 97-100, 102, 104, 108,
Mar. ~ 1946 )
197. Tinnerholm, A. R., Mod. Plastics, 23, 180_2, Air. (1946)
198. Nielson, R. A., Steel, ;~, 102, 104, 106, 112, Mar. (1946)
199. Bosomworth, 9. P., Rubber Age, 59, 429_40, July (1946)
200. Roberds, W. M., Inst. Radio Eng. , Proc., 34, 489_500, July
201. Relfel, lI., Elec. Mfg., 38, 148, 150, 212, Oct. (1946)
202. Kleinberger, R. C., Electronic Ind., 5, 78-9, June tl946)
203. Eohler, F., Plastics, 5, 50, 52, 55, 91_3, Dec. (1946)
20~. Chimer, E. 1~., Elec. World, 126, ale, 102, Oct. (19~;6)
205. Seeley, W. C., Elec florid, 126, 88_9, July (1946)
206. F5ro:m, G. H. end others, Inst. Radio Eng., Proc.. t',TeveS anti
Electrons, 1, 5871-65W, Feb. (1946)
207. Schutz, P. W. end Mcvehon, E. K., Ind. and Eng. Chem., 38,
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208. WinJund, E. S., Electronics, 19' 108 (1946)
209. Electrician, 136, 351_4, Feb. 8, (1946)
210. E1ectronice, 19t 170_2, 174+,, Mar. (1946)
_ 65 -
211. Ind. Equin . Ne: rs, 14, 1, Peb. ( 1946 )
212. Purchasing, ~2, 180, 184, Me=. (19*6)
213. Ind. E('ulpe News ~ 14 ~ 24 ~ Feb. ~ 1946 )
214. Mittelmar~n, E. and Bo~omworth, G. P., Electronics, 19,
128-30, Mar . ~ 1946 ~
215 . E1 ect. West, 96, 59_60, Jan . ( 1946 )
216. Eng. File Facts, Matls. And Methods, 23, 183, Jan. (1946)
217. Brumle~re, C. C. J Plastics (pond. ) 10, 7_10, 56, Jan. (lg46)
218. Smithera, V. L., India Pubber World, 113, 505-7, 566, Jan.
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219. Electronlc Ind ., 5 , 84_5 , Jan. ( 1946 )
220. Elec. World, 125, 126, 128, May (1946)
221. Tel~nisk Tidekrlft, 75, 1087-99, Octe (1945 )
222. Cole, H. 1~., Elec. World, 125, 102-3, June (1946)
223. Textile Worlcl, 96, 118_21, 212, 217 , May (1946)
224 ~ Ind. Equip ~ Neons , 14, 1, 105 , June ( 1946 )
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226 ~
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.
233.
234.
235
236.
SCI. Am. 3 174, 157, Apr. (1946)
Electronic Ind., 5, 92, Feb. (1946)
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Ind. Equip. News, 14, 99, Mar. (1946)
Ind. Equip. News 9 14, 80, Aug. ( 1946 )
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Metallurgla, 34, 210_2, Aug. '1946)
Electronic Ind., 5, 62~3, Non. (1946)
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239. Smith, E. W., Wireless World, 52, 129-31, Apr. tl946)
240. Johnson) Ee 0e ~ R.,C.A. Rears, 7) 272-80, June (1946)
241. Zinmerman, K., Radio, 30, 13-5, May (1946); 20_1, 32, 55_6,
June ~ 194.6 ~
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242. Cox, C. R., Electronics, hi, 130-5, May (1946)
243 . Ind . Equip. News , 14, 22, Ardor. ~ 1946 ~
244. Cragg.s, J. W. and Ranter, O. J., Quart. Apt. Math., 3,
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246. Electronics, 19, 330, Jan. (1946)
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250. Elec . Mfg., 37, 158 , Jan. ( 1946 )
251. Frey, lI. A., Distribution, 8, 10_1, Oct. (1946)
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256. Electronic Ink., 5, 76-7, Mar. (1946)
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258. Pike, C. H., E]ec. Rev., Lond., INS, 11_2, Jan. ~ (1946)
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279. Clayton, R. J. and others, J. Inst. Elect. Eng. (Lond.),
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281. ST'roull, R. L. and Llnder, E. G., Inet. Radio Eng., Proc.,
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282. Banks , F. F . , Jr. , Radio News, Radio-Electronic Dent. , 7,
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283. ~Jehrlin, H., ABS. Suisse Elect. Bull., 36, 445_53, Jelly 25,
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284. Sinclair, D. B., Radio News, Radio-Electronic Dept., 5, 14,
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285. Jones, W. T., Electronic Ind., 5, 48_54, 135_6, Nov. (1946)
286. Ashdown, O., Electronic Eng., ~a, 318_9, Oct. (1946)
287. Electronic Ind., 5, 75_7, 96, July (1946)
288. Sharnless, t1. M., Inst. Radio Eng., Proc., 34, 837_45, ItOY.
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289. Crawford, A. B. and Shernless, W. M., Inat. Radio Eng., Proc.,
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300. Dike, S. H., Electroni cs, 19, 140, 142, Aug. (1946)
301. Goffi n, G. and Marchal G., Ase. Suisse Elect. Bull. 37,
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310. S&]lsbury, W. W., Electronics, Ad, 92_7, Feb. (1946)
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323. Korrnen. N.
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326. Miller, J. TIe~
327. Glineki, G. ,
328. Paine, R. C.,
329 ~ Biberman, L. S
330. Mie~ke, R. C. ,
Proc., 34, 665P-66SP,
Bent .
Proc ., 34 , l8P-22P, dan.
Phya. P.e~r., 70,
Weston Eng. Nieces
Electronic Ind. , 5,
Radio 30
. me.
308_' 7 ,
. 1, 7-8
Sent . ~ 1946
Dee . ~ 1 946
64_5, Aug. (1946)
23-5, 36, June ~ 1946)
., Radio, 30, lid, July (~946)
Waves and Electrons, I, 76W-77W, Feb. (1946)
331. Wheeler, G. J., Electronics, 19, 186, Sent. (1946)
332. Paine, R. C.,
Elec tronic
Ind., 5 , 72-4 , 110, Now. ~ 1946
_ 71
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