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OCR for page 7
The Changing
Focus of
Vocational
Education
In a community college in Michigan, there are two lunch lines in the
cafeteria: one serves the regular $0.75 lunch; the other, for $1.25, serves a
gourmet meal prepared by students in the chef training program. In a
high school in Illinois, handicapped and other vocational students oper-
ate a combination motel, restaurant, and gas station completely on their
own. In another high school district, vocational students have built and
sold 35 residential houses in the last 35 years, combining the efforts of
students in drafting, interior decorating, sheet metal shop, and building
trades. These are only three examples of scores of ways in which voca-
tional educators are trying to meet their primary objective: preparing
students for work.
Vocational education is unique in a number of ways. It treats students
as practitioners, preparing them for skilled entry-level jobs not requiring
a baccalaureate. It offers training in specialized skills such as nursing,
auto mechanics, and irrigation technology, usually in high schools or in
two-year post-secondary schools. It frequently uses instructional settings
other than (and in addition to) the traditional classroom. Its success in
terms of placing students in jobs is highly dependent upon the economy.
In high schools it serves primarily students of lower socioeconomic status
and less academic ability than the general student population.
This chapter sets vocational education in its social and historical con-
text and presents the issues that have faced vocational educators and
researchers. These issues are also discussed as they relate to present and
future vocational education and its R&D.
7
J
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8 ASSESSING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
BACKGROUND
The notion that schools should prepare students for work is relatively
new. Schools began to intro. Urn r.tir~1 cilhi-~t~ `~h;~h `',^~^ Am; Af1
~ _ r~ ~^ -~VJ~ lay WE ~1 ~1~
to - train the hand as well as the mind," toward the end of the ninety enth
century, when most young people were taking advantage of free public
elementary education, and an increasing number were continuing
through high school. Manual training, domestic science (home econom-
ics), agriculture, and business courses attracted many students, and en-
rollment in these curricula grew rapidly. Around the turn of the century,
however, some of the manual training educators and many agricultural,
business, and industrial leaders became aware of the need to prepare
people for more specific occupations. The idea of developing vocational
education courses for high school students who wanted to prepare for
work grew from this need.
Three pieces of legislation were critical in the development of voca-
tional education: the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 (P.L. 64-347), the Voca-
tional Education Act of 1963 (P.L. 88-210), and the 1968 Amendments
(P.L. 90-576) to the 1963 Act. The Smith-Hughes Act provided federal
aid for vocational education offered by public secondary schools; this
significantly increased the number of programs and students, from
160,000 students in 1918 to almost four million in 1960. Many of these
students were adults who wanted better jobs. The Vocational Education
Act of 1963 authorized increased funding for vocational education and
also encouraged vocational education to shift to broader goals related to
the development of human potential and long-term employment. Voca-
tional education had been first offered in public schools in the United
States during a period of thriving industrialism, when the needs of work-
ers were considered to be secondary to the needs of the economy. At that
time, vocational education accepted the short-term goals of meeting the
rapidly changing demands of the labor market; it was less concerned
with gradual trends in the labor market or with human needs. With the
passage of the 1963 Act, the objectives of vocational education became
much broader than they had been 60 years earlier. Because of the broad-
ened focus and increased funding, enrollment in vocational education
programs more than doubled in the next four years.
The 1968 Vocational Education Amendments continued the emphasis
on serving the needs of students. An important objective of the Amend-
ments was to provide better service to the disadvantaged, the handi-
capped, post-secondary, and adult students. The legislation also provid-
ed support for the career education movement by stressing career plan-
ning as well as employment preparation of students.
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The Changing Focus of Vocational Education
ISSUES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
9
Vocational education of the 1970s differs markedly from the program
initiated in 1917. In 1974, there were 13.5 million students in vocational
education programs, including the disadvantaged, the handicapped, and
those needing more advanced specialized training in post-secondary in-
stitutions. Vocational education programs are today more varied in con-
tent, employ more sophisticated instructional methods, and attempt to
teach much more than occupational skills. Vocational counseling plays
an increasingly important role in vocational education, so that students
can be better equipped to make decisions regarding occupational choice.
The objectives of vocational education have been expanded since
1917. While a major objective is still to prepare people for work in order
to meet the needs of the economy, a second objective, which emerged in
the 1960s, is to increase the employment options available to each per-
son. Vocational education has become concerned with developing flexi-
ble occupational and decision-making skills so that students may choose
any of several occupations after graduation. A third, usually implicit,
objective is motivating students to learn basic academic skills.
Researchers have done and continue to do investigative and develop-
mental work to improve vocational education. (The Committee's review
of R&D related to vocational education is presented in Appendix A.)
Three particular lines of investigation have been pursued characteris-
tics of students, instruction of students, and the relation of vocational
education to work. First, vocational education researchers have tried to
identify the characteristics of students being served by the programs so
that the needs of the students can be considered when designing pro-
grams. Vocational educators and researchers are sensitive to the need to
serve all students, including women, minorities, the disadvantaged, and
the handicapped. Second, vocational educators are concerned with the
instruction received by students. Accordingly, research and development
is carried out to make curricula flexible, to develop new programs in
career education, and to compare the effectiveness of various modes of
instruction. Third, vocational educators are concerned with the objec-
tives of vocational education and the relationship between programs and
the work place. Researchers use labor market information to adapt pro-
grams to the demands of the economy. They study career development
and guidance to increase the flexibility and decision-making skill of each
student. They also evaluate vocational education to measure the extent
to which those programs are meeting their stated objectives and to judge
the appropriateness of the objectives.
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10 ASSESSING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION STUDENTS
Tailoring Programs to the Needs of Students
In light of the expanded objectives of vocational education, practitioners
now generally believe that the characteristics and needs of students
should be understood before programs can be developed to best meet
students' needs. Several studies have shown that, compared with other
students, vocational education students usually come from families of
lower socioeconomic status and have less academic, especially verbal,
ability. Their parents usually have received less education. It is not
known, however, why students of lower socioeconomic status, lower oc-
cupational aspirations, or less academic ability are in vocational educa-
tion programs. Researchers have not determined to what extent students
with these characteristics actively choose vocational programs over other
programs and to what extent they are assigned by school administrators
to vocational programs more often than other students. There seems to
be a tacit assumption that these students are better prepared for work by
vocational than general education since they learn skills for blue-collar
jobs, which they are likely to hold because of their socioeconomic back-
grounds. The implication that vocational education thus perpetuates so-
cial class distinctions has not been investigated.
It is also assumed that vocational students learn basic educational
skills (the three Rs) better if they are enrolled in both vocational and
general education courses because they are more interested in the con-
text in which these skills are taught. Frequently, students who are ready
to drop out of general high school programs are reportedly "turned on"
by vocational programs and become enthusiastic students and pro-
ductive workers. This assumption has not been questioned in a scientific
manner.
Equal Access to Programs
Educators are now required to provide equal program opportunities to
all students. Emphasis has been placed on minorities, the handicapped,
the disadvantaged, adults, and more recently, women and those who do
not speak English as their first language. Vocational education has been
encouraged to eliminate sex stereotyping in programs and to provide
equal access to programs associated with occupations that have been
traditionally dominated by one sex. It is not clear to what extent this
requirement is being met. There is some question as to how vocational
education can best serve those students who have been socially and eco
OCR for page 11
The Changing Focus of Vocational Education
1
'1
nomically disadvantaged. For example, how can vocational education
take into account differences in the cultural values, especially those con-
cerning work, of different ethnic groups and provide training to maxi-
mize students' chances of getting and holding jobs? Rarely do teachers
receive special training to help them meet the unique needs of different
groups of students. (Suggestions for further research on meeting the
needs of minority group members and women are contained in articles
by Hamilton [1975] and Roby [1976~.)
INSTRUCTION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION STUDENTS
Flexibility in Curricula
The training needed by vocational education students has changed
markedly over the years. With rapidly changing economic and techno-
logical developments in business and industry, new skills are required
and old skills become obsolete. Although substantial efforts have been
made in R&D to develop a means for keeping curricula up-to-date and
responsive to the changing needs of students, this remains a major prob-
lem in vocational education. Institutional rigidity has sometimes resulted
in the training of outmoded skills on obsolete equipment by teachers
whose knowledge of~~ndustry Is not current.
Further, it is becoming increasingly likely that people will change oc-
cupations at least once in their lifetimes, so that vocational education
programs should teach multiple and generalizable skills that will prepare
people better for mid-career changes. The objective of training students
for occupational versatility has not been easy to meet. Vocational educa-
tion R&D has not successfully solved the problem of training people for
the specialized technical skills required by certain occupations and, si-
multaneously, preparing them for a broader range of job opportunities.
Career Education
Career education, a major R&D topic funded under the 1968 Amend-
ments, has attempted to expand the boundaries of traditional vocational
education. The essential concept of career education is that all students,
not just vocational education students, should be exposed to career de-
velopment opportunities throughout their school years and that every
student should leave school with the skills necessary for job entry, wheth-
er that student completes the tenth grade or a four-year college course.
Career education ideally exposes students to the full range of career
opportunities, helps them decide their occupational futures, and provides
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12 ASSESSING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
education and training appropriate to their career choices. Career educa-
tion includes vocational education in that occupational training for spec-
ific skills is one of its essential elements, but it is also concerned with
preparing all students to make career decisions and changes throughout
their lives.
Despite the heavy investment of R&D funds in career education pro-
grams, research has neither established an empirical or theoretical basis
for career education nor evaluated its effectiveness. It has not been deter-
mined at what point in a student's education knowledge about jobs and
careers should be introduced, when specialized skills should be taught, or
how career education can be individualized for students with differing
needs and ambitions.
On-the-Job Training versus Classroom Training
Another critical issue in vocational education instruction has been the
identification of the advantages of classroom instruction relative to those
of on-thejob training (which can take place under the auspices of the
employer or in conjunction with school-sponsored cooperative educa-
tion). Some have argued that training at the work site is the most effec-
tive and relevant method of job instruction. In addition, if only a few
students desire instruction in a given field, classroom training may not be
feasible. On the other hand, classroom instruction has other advantages:
job simulation minimizes penalties for error and allows students to learn
at a flexible pace. The need to measure the advantages of on-thejob
training relative to those of classroom training remains a challenge to
vocational education R&D.
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND WORK
Objectives of Vocational Education
The primary objective of vocational education programs has been to
prepare students for occupations, with a recent emphasis on equality of
access to programs. Some other objectives, benefits, and purposes of
v~all~ll~1 <;uu`;aLlon nave oeen identified but not fully studied. Voca-
tional education programs usually serve the perceived needs of students
and workers as well as those of employers. Success is usually measured
by the proportion of graduates who get jobs. The costs and benefits of
vocational education and the distribution of these costs and benefits to
the public and private sectors have not been investigated. Similarly, the
distribution of costs and benefits to employees and employers has not
Arm ~_~1 ~1 ~1 1
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The Changing Focus of Vocational Education
13
been studied. For example, training aviation mechanics in public schools
reduces training costs for the private airline companies. (In theory, the
more the training is specifically tailored to actual job requirements, the
greater the benefit to the employer.) To the extent that competition exists
among employers, the saving in private training costs from vocational
education programs may be passed on to the consumers. The extent to
which public vocational schools augment private profits or cause lower
prices has not been measured.
Vocational education can serve both public and private purposes. An
example of a public ouroose for vocational education would be helping
1 1 ~ ~ ,& ~
people become responsible citizens by helping them to become responsi-
ble workers. Training for citizenship, of course, is one of the principal
purposes of schools in general. Vocational schools may have a particu-
larly important role to play because there is evidence that people are
more inclined to participate responsibly in democratic government if
they have the experience of responsible participation at work.
Democratic responsibility in the work place has been a major political
issue in other industrial countries for years. In October 1975, the U.S.
Congress established the National Center for Productivity and Quality of
Working Life, to promote, among other things, inquiry into the possible
benefits of increased participation by employees in decision making in
the work place. In order to enhance their ability to participate responsi-
bly at work, students in public vocational programs might be given op-
portunities to learn, for example, what a corporation is and what a pro-
ducers' cooperative is, how collective bargaining works, what the stock
market does, and how time-and-motion studies are performed. They
might also be trained in the skills required to own and operate their own
businesses. Researchers should seek ways in which vocational education
can help students achieve the level of economic literacy necessary to
exercise their full rights and responsibilities at work.
Job Placement
Because job training has been a major goal of vocational education,
there have been many attempts to maximize the proportion of vocational
education graduates placed in jobs. Two complementary strategies have
been used labor market forecasting and career guidance.
Labor market information is used by vocational educators to predict
future demand for certain occupations and to adapt programs to meet
the demands. Many states have developed and are using their own labor
market management information systems, but present forecasting meth-
ods can be improved in at least three ways. First, labor market demand
, . ,
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14 ASSESSING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
forecasts should attempt to take into account the extent to which wages
and working conditions will change if more or fewer workers are trained.
Second, program planners and researchers should recognize that labor
market information from various vocational education districts must be
coordinated in some way because workers move from place to place.
Third, since macroeconomic or institutionally oriented employment poli-
cy affects total demand for labor, it should be taken into account in labor
market forecasts.
Career development and guidance strive to meet the needs of individu-
al students while they are enrolled in programs and after graduation. The
overall goal of career guidance is to improve the ability of students to
make career decisions. Traditionally, guidance counselors waited until
students came to them with career or job problems. Now some counsel-
ors are trying to anticipate and prevent problems by providing students
with career information and decision-making skills that will reduce the
frequency of decisions based on incomplete information or inappropriate
choice strategies.
Educational personnel are increasingly concerned with providing stu-
dents more information on available instructions and training programs.
Students might find it helpful to learn about the experiences of graduates
and dropouts from these institutions. At present, there is more informa-
tion available to help institutions select individuals than to help individu-
als select institutions. The effects on students and institutions of the
availability of this information is not known.
Evaluation of Vocational Education Programs
A necessary step in improving the connection between vocational educa-
tion and work is evaluation, which measures the extent to which pro-
grams are meeting their stated objectives. Past evaluations of vocational
education programs have rarely been adequate. The studies most often
cited as model evaluations generally need improvement. Larger and bet-
ter-designed samples, more appropriate experimental and questionnaire
design, better measurement of criterion and background variables, and
more suitable statistical techniques could strengthen future evaluations.
Further, some believe that current evaluations over little assistance to
the vocational education policy maker, curriculum developer, or teacher
because the criterion measures inadequately reflect program success:
evaluators have most often measured success in terms of initial job place-
ment, which is determined by many factors, including the availability of
jobs, the social status, personality, and intellect of the student, and
chance. The existing criterion variables could be supplemented with new
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The Changing Focus of Vocational Education
1 C
measures of other aspects of program success, for example, job satisfac-
tion, job turnover rates, the socioeconomic mix of students, and changes
in student self-perceptions.
CONCLUSIONS
The issues facing vocational education also affect other behavioral and
social sciences. In the past, vocational education researchers have been
able to draw on the work of social and behavioral scientists in areas such
as human learning and development. However, in some cases, vocational
education R&D has proceeded without the benefit of established social
and behavioral science theories or an extensive knowledge base. The
Committee hopes the education and manpower work program of the
National Institute of Education and the research program of the Depart-
ment of Labor will provide support for the development of coherent
theoretical perspectives leading to more useful applied research in voca-
tional education.
In addition to the exchange of knowledge and theories on substantive
issues, methodological advances made by other social science researchers
can benefit vocational education researchers. However, existing R&D
methods have sometimes been inadequate or inappropriate for use in
vocational education. In order to meet the methodological needs of vo-
cational education R&D, the USOE definition of applied research should be
expanded to include the development of research tools.
In the past 60 years, vocational education has broadened its objectives
in response to changes in American society. Enrollment in programs has
expanded to include groups of students never before served by vocation-
al education. Diverse needs of students have been addressed as societal
pressures demanded. In the future, vocational educators and researchers
may want to take a more active role, anticipating altered demands of the
labor market and of society.
Most of the past research in vocational education cannot be general-
ized beyond the immediate situation that was studied. Questions with
far-reaching implications have not been investigated; for example, alter-
native instructional settings have not been successfully compared, highly
flexible and generalizable curricula have not been developed, and the
objectives of vocational education have not been carefully examined. If
research is to improve the education of vocational students, it must be
more far-sighted, expanded in scope, and improved in quality.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
education students
