Index
A
Academic sector, 14, 145, 267-268, 270-271
organic farming, 114-115
technology transfer, 106-109, 257
see also Land-grant universities;
Professional education
Advanced Technology Program, 10-11, 264
Aesthetic quality, 36-37, 53, 85, 86, 238
Agricultural Health Study, 65
Agricultural Research Service, 14, 28, 109, 164, 167, 259, 268
Air contamination, 63, 69, 72, 74-75, 76-77, 78, 121
ozone layer depletion, 76-77, 189-190, 256
Alien species, see Invasive species
American Council of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 62
Animal studies of pesticide effects, 124, 126
Animal production and transportation systems, 3, 67, 106, 211, 221-223, 239
insecticides, 71
invasive plant species, toxic, 190
professional education, 221
regulation, 221
Annual cropping systems, 211, 212-219
Apples, 39, 40, 42-44, 46, 47, 53, 68, 85-87, 118, 128, 220-221, 238
organic farming, 85, 87, 113-114, 115-117
Application technologies, 4, 5, 134-135, 146, 154, 179-185
animal production systems, 221
baits, 37-38, 135, 155, 181, 191
herbicides, 181
human health factors, 4, 62-63, 66-67, 181-182, 212, 252-253
occupational exposures, 4, 62-63, 66-67, 181-182, 252-253
odorants and dyes, 13, 77, 135-139, 168, 267
precision agriculture, 110, 112, 182-184
R&D recommendations, 5, 8, 253, 258, 260, 262
remote sensing, 183-184
training, 110
urban pest management, 223, 226
Aquatic habitat, see Water contamination
risk assessment, 5, 9, 123-129, 234-235, 241-242, 254, 255
study at hand, methodology, 2, 250-251
see also Cost and cost-benefit factors;
Registration of pesticides
Asthma, 37
Attitudes
aesthetic quality of food products, 36-37, 53, 85, 86, 238
workers, 253-254
see also Public opinion
Austria, 116
B
Bacillus thuringiensis, 148, 149, 157-160, 162, 164, 169, 171, 173, 194-195, 213, 252
market for, 146
registration of, 159-160
resistance to, 58
vegetables, 157-158
Baits, 37-38, 135, 155, 181, 191
see also Pheromones
Barley, 127
Benefit-cost analysis, see Cost-benefit analysis
Biochemistry, general, 7, 8, 28
Biocontrols, general, 9, 10, 19-20, 44, 193
combined budget-market models, 49
herbicides, 271
historical perspectives, 24, 25
natural enemies, 19, 23, 25, 27, 44, 82-83, 150, 169
pesticide defined, 19-20
population dynamics, 184
R&D recommendations, 6, 8, 11-12, 256-257, 260, 261
wildland systems, 226
see also Biopesticides;
Integrated pest management;
Transgenic crops
Biodiversity, 82, 191-192, 226, 242
annual cropping systems, 213
Conservation Reserve Program, 12, 122, 262, 265
perennial cropping systems, 211
see also Nontarget species
Biointegral farming/orchard systems, 119-120
Biopesticide and Pollution Prevention Division (BPPD), 11, 265
Biopesticides, 2, 3, 20, 156, 261-267
cost and cost-benefit factors, 156, 158, 161, 162, 231
herbicides, 20
microbial pesticides, 19, 20, 58, 146, 148, 156-168, 169, 171, 175
see also Bacillus thuringiensis;
Integrated pest management;
Transgenic crops
Biotechnology, 10, 20, 107-108, 152, 252, 258, 261-267
historical perspectives, 25, 27
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
pests, genetic engineering of, 173-176
see also Biopesticides;
Minor crops;
Transgenic crops
Broad spectrum pesticides, 24-25, 76, 79, 161, 162, 163-164, 210, 213-214, 219, 224
Bt, see Bacillus thuringiensis
C
California, 11, 17, 49, 55, 86, 110, 120, 122, 157, 264
animal production systems, 221, 223
historical perspectives, 23, 24
occupational exposures, 56, 63-64, 68, 74, 77
prescription use of restricted pesticides, 134
Cancer, 36, 62, 65, 68-69, 76, 86, 89, 118, 124, 128-129
Carbon dioxide, 120-121, 186-189
Carson, Rachel, 25
Cereals, general, 35, 57, 82, 145, 169, 211
see specific cereals
Children, 37-38, 66, 69, 84, 123, 125-126
farm workers/residents, 66
Chile, 103
Citrus fruit, 220
fumigation, 54
productivity, pesticide-related, 39, 40, 42-44, 46, 47
Clean Air Act Amendments, 77
annual cropping systems, 212, 213
entomopathogenic fungi, 163-164
global warming, 120-121, 187-189
human effects, 136
perennial cropping systems, 212
pesticide-related productivity, 44
study at hand, methodology, 2
Cockroaches, 37-38
Colleges and universities, see Academic sector;
Land-grant universities
Combinatorial chemistry, 177-178
Combined budget-market models, 49, 227
Commodity programs, 110-111, 235
Computer applications, see Databases
Conservation Reserve Program, 12, 122, 262, 265
Conservation tillage, 36
Consulting services, 109-110, 260, 271
extension services, 14, 109-110, 132, 243, 260, 268, 271
Containers, see Packaging and containers
Convention on Climate Change, see Kyoto protocol
Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, 109
Corn, 34, 35, 36, 38, 30, 40, 43-44, 46, 47, 54, 56, 127-128, 145, 148, 188, 193, 212, 213, 216-217, 222-223, 252
Cost and cost-benefit factors, 4, 77, 157, 227-244, 253, 254-255, 262-263
biopesticides, 156, 158, 161, 162, 231
combined budget-market models, 49, 227
discounting, 228, 230, 238, 241, 244
ecological factors, 240, 242-243, 245
EPA, 227
farm worker exposure prevention, 66
food residues, 240-241
globalization and, 103, 256, 259
historical perspectives, 24-25
human health, 66, 227-228, 240, 246, 267
market forces, 49, 227, 228-244
microbial pesticides, 158, 161
models of changes in pesticide use, 45, 47-52
nontarget species, 243
occupational exposure, 66, 240, 267
partial-budget models, 45, 47-48, 49, 227
pest resistance to pesticides, 58-59
pesticides, consumer cost of, 33, 36-38, 54, 184-185, 245
private sector, 45, 47-52, 123, 127, 179, 227-244
regional factors, 45, 48, 49, 50, 234, 229, 231, 232, 233-234, 237, 240, 242, 243, 244
registration requirements, 123, 127, 179
regulation, 45, 47-48, 49, 227-228, 231, 235, 237, 243
substitutes for pesticides, 45, 49
supply and demand, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234-239 (passim)
technological innovation, general, 45, 47-52, 123, 127, 179, 227-244
temporal factors, 179, 230, 243-244
see also Price factors;
Supply and demand
Cotton, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42-44, 46, 47, 54, 119, 145, 148, 149, 169, 215-216
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 83-84, 133-134
Court cases, see Liability and litigation
commodity programs, phase out of, 110-111
ecologically based pest management, 12
Farmers' Risk Management Act, 12, 266
integrated pest management, 12, 266
Crop rotation, 40, 44, 48, 56, 193, 257
Cropping systems, general, 10, 33-34, 48, 184, 270
perennial, 211-212
see specific crops
Cultural controls, 28, 44, 186, 192, 213
biointegral farming/orchard systems, 119-120
crop rotation, 40, 44, 48, 56, 193, 257
perennial cropping systems, 211
R&D recommendations, 6, 8, 256-257, 260
see also Biocontrols
D
Dairy products, 68, 111, 114, 123-124, 235
Databases, 109, 122, 125, 126, 128, 130, 177, 185, 271
DDT, 24, 56, 59, 62, 70, 80, 17
Decision support systems, 175-186, 268, 269
Definitional issues
agroecosystems, 211
ecologically based pest management (EBMP), 2
Demand, see Supply and demand
Denmark, 139
Department of Agriculture, 18, 27, 29
Agricultural Research Service, 14, 28, 109, 164, 167, 259, 268
Conservation Reserve Program, 12, 122, 262, 265
cotton, boll weevil eradication, 41
entomopathogenic fungi, 163
extension services, 14, 109-110, 132, 243, 260, 268, 271
globalization, research priorities, 103
occupational exposures, 66
organic farming, 115
pesticide use statistics, 38
R&D funding, 7, 8, 28, 29, 128, 259, 260;
resistant pests, 195
technology transfer, 109
urban areas, 89
Department of Commerce, 10-11, 264
Department of Health and Human Services, 18
see also Food and Drug Administration;
National Institutes of Health
Department of the Interior, see Geological Survey
Developing countries, 103, 105
Disease, see Human health;
Plant disease
pharmaceuticals markets, 105
Dyes, see Odorants and dyes
E
Eastern Europe, 104
EBPM, see Ecologically based pest management (EBPM)
Eco-labeling, 6, 88, 115-119, 255
Ecologically based pest management (EBPM), 4, 251, 252-253, 265, 269
crop insurance, 12
defined, 2
R&D recommendations, 10, 259, 264
study at hand, methodology, 2, 3, 29, 250
Ecological factors, general, 12
changes affecting agriculture, 186-192;
see also Invasive species
Conservation Reserve Program, 12, 122, 262, 265
cost-benefit analysis, 240, 242-243, 245
crop insurance, 12
historical perspectives, 25, 27
natural product fungicides, 167
persistence of pesticides, 24, 25, 61, 178
population and community dynamics, 8, 12, 184-185
public opinion, 88
R&D recommendations, 5, 7, 8, 28, 30, 253, 254, 255, 260, 261
stewardship, 5, 12, 120, 255, 262, 265
study at hand, methodology, 1, 2, 4, 250, 251
voluntary environmental protection agreements, 122
see also Air contamination;
Biodiversity;
Integrated pest management;
Nontarget species;
Soil contamination;
Water contamination;
Weather and climate
Econometric models, 50-52
Economic factors, 5, 35-37, 44, 102-120, 144-154
academic research, 106-109
animal production systems, 221
biotechnology, 10, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
combined budget-market models, 49
commodity programs, 110-111, 235
consumer expenditures on food, 35-36
decentralization and privatization, 102, 106-110, 111
devolution of federal role, 106, 111
eco-labeling, 115-119
environmental concerns and income level, 120
globalization, 6, 102, 103-105, 106, 108, 110-111, 147, 152-153, 197, 256, 259
herbicides, 24, 33, 36, 38-39, 40, 42-43, 46, 145, 152, 153
historical perspectives, 24, 27, 33, 36, 38-43
industrialization, 102, 105-106
knowledge economy, 102, 107, 111-112
consultants, 109-110, 260, 271
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
organic food market, 6, 10, 88, 102, 113-119, 139, 255-256
partial-budget models, 45, 47-48, 49, 227
product quality enhancements due to pesticides, 53
professional education, 13-14
recommendations, 5, 6, 8, 253, 254, 255
registration requirements, 123, 127, 179
regulatory requirements, other, 45, 47-48, 49, 102, 103-104, 106, 115-117, 123, 227-228, 231, 235, 237, 243, 261-262
study at hand, methodology, 1, 250
US consumption of and expenditures on pesticides, 24, 33, 36, 38-41, 46, 47-48, 59
weeds, 36
world expenditures on pesticides, 144-145, 152
see also Cost and cost-benefit factors;
Crop insurance;
Market forces;
Patents;
Price factors;
Productivity, agricultural;
Supply and demand
Economic Research Service, 48
Education, see Academic sector;
Consulting services;
Extension services;
Professional education;
Public education
Employment issues, 119
farm workers, 64-67, 83, 130-139, 212, 265, 266-267
industrialization, 105
see Occupational exposures
Endocrine effects
humans, 69, 70, 74, 81, 118, 128-130
see also Pheromones
Enforcement of regulations, 5, 55, 62-64, 66, 69, 110, 121, 122, 129, 130-131, 212, 243, 254, 258, 262-263, 266
Entomopathogenic fungi, 156, 163-165
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 7, 29, 127, 128, 129, 130, 179, 259, 260, 264-265
animal production systems, 221
cost-benefit analyses, 227
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 2, 17-18, 19-20, 65-66, 120, 128, 251
historical perspectives, 25, 26, 120, 121
household insecticides, 37-38
occupational exposures, 12-13, 66-67, 130-133, 136, 137-138
pesticide defined, 18-19
Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program, 120
reduced-risk pesticides, 3, 154-156, 251
resistant pests, 195
unprocessed foods, 124
urban areas, 89
see also Registration of pesticides
Environmental Sciences Institute, 130
Europe
baculoviruses, 161
eco-labeling, 115-116
global warming, 188
organic farming, 115-117
taxation, 121
Evaluation methodology, see Assessment methodology;
Decision support systems
Evolution of pests, 6-8, 28, 192-197
see also Resistant pests
Exports, see Globalization;
Imports and exports
Exposure pathways, see Air contamination;
Dermal exposure;
Food residues;
Occupational contamination;
Soil contamination;
Water contamination
Extension services, 14, 109-110, 132, 243, 260, 268, 271
F
Farm Bill (1990), 121-122
Farm management practices, 44, 265
stewardship, 5, 12, 120, 255, 262, 265
study at hand. methodology, 2
see also Ecologically based pest management;
Integrated pestmanagement
Farm workers, 64-67, 83, 130-139, 212, 265, 266-267
Farmers' Risk Management Act, 12, 266
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 18, 123
Federal government, general 10, 243
commodity programs, 110-111, 235
devolution of regulatory authority, 106, 111
product grading standards, 53
R&D, 1, 5, 7-9, 243, 250, 257-267, 276
storage, fumigation, 53-54
see also Funding;
Land-grant universities;
Legislation;
Regulatory issues;
specific departments and agencies
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 2, 17-18, 19-20, 65-66, 120, 123, 128, 251
Federal Technology Transfer Act, 109
Fertilizer, 33, 50, 110, 113, 119, 187, 223, 233
FIFRA, see Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
Food and Drug Administration, 7, 18, 27, 68, 69, 125, 259
animal production systems, 20, 221
urban areas, 89
Food prices, 36, 86, 87, 114, 117, 237
Food processing, see Processing of agricultural products
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 37-38, 70, 123-130, 133, 154-156, 255, 262
Food residues, 8, 15, 28, 61, 63, 67-70, 112, 252-253, 260
animal production systems, 221
animal studies of effects, 124, 126
children, 37-38, 66, 69, 84, 123, 125-126
cost-benefit analysis, 240-241
Department of Agriculture, 68, 69
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 37-38, 70, 123-130, 133, 154, 156, 255, 262
Food Security Act, 121
foreign countries, regulations, 103-104, 106, 114, 115-117, 120
metabolic processes, 67-68
organic foods free of, see Eco-labeling;
Organic foods
product grading standards, 53
public opinion, 84-89
regulatory issues, 53, 37-38, 70, 103-104, 106, 114, 121, 123-130
see also Food and Drug Administration;
Public opinion
Food Security Act, 121
Foreign countries, see Globalization;
Imports and exports;
International perspectives;
specific countries and regions
Forests and forestry, 1, 4, 30, 66, 121, 155, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 168, 183, 186, 188, 190, 211, 226, 250
FQPA, see Food Quality Protection Act
France, 116
Fruits, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42-45, 49, 76, 116, 148, 149, 158, 220-221, 250
children, consumption by, 69
perennial cropping systems, 211
product grading standards, 53
see also specific fruits
Funding, 10
data collection, 128
Department of Agriculture, 7, 8, 28, 29, 128, 259, 260;
see also Agricultural Research Service
herbicides, 30
historical perspectives, 7, 28, 259
integrated pest management, 119, 120
metabolic processes, R&D, 29
minor-crop products, 11, 263, 265
National Science Foundation (NSF), R&D funding, 7, 8, 28, 30, 259, 260
occupational exposures, 9, 12-13, 29, 263, 264-265, 266-267
private investment, 7, 10, 11, 106-110, 111-112, 146-154, 178, 234, 257, 258
R&D, general, 7-11 (passim),
resistant pests, 29
US-Israeli Fund, 104-105
Fungicides, 35, 148, 149, 150, 220-221, 222-223, 238
historical perspectives, 33, 36, 39, 41, 42-43
hypovirulence, 168
integrated pest management, 165-168
natural product fungicides, 167
occupational exposures, 62, 64
resistant plants, 169
storage of agricultural products, 53
transportation of, 62
US use volume and expenditures, 33, 36, 39, 41-43, 46
Fungus-based insecticides, 156, 163-165
Fumigants, 22, 23, 38, 40, 41, 53-54, 55, 76-77, 219
G
Gardens, see House and garden uses
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 103
insect hybrid sterility, 173
population genetics, 8, 12, 184-185, 195, 246, 260
ultraviolet radiation, 189, 190
see also Biotechnology;
Evolution of pests;
Resistant pests;
Resistant plants;
Transgenic crops
Genomics, 8, 28, 153, 169, 178
Geological Survey, 78
Geographic factors, see Globalization;
International perspectives;
Regional factors, national;
Regional factors, world
Germany, 116
Globalization, 6, 102, 103-105, 106, 108, 147, 152-153, 197, 256, 259
commodity programs, phase out of, 110-111
costs and benefits, 103, 256, 259
Department of Agriculture, research priorities, 103
regulatory issues, 103-104
Global positioning system, 8, 182
Global warming, 120-121, 187-189
Grapes, 114, 118-119, 128, 149, 212
Greenhouse effect, see Global warming
H
Hartman Report, 87-88
Hay, 127
Health and safety, see Human health;
Occupational exposures
Herbicides, 38, 39, 148, 212, 214-218, 220-221, 222-223
application technology, 181
biocontrols, general, 271
biointegral farming/orchard systems, 119-120
biopesticide categories, 20
costs and cost-benefit analysis, 227, 246, 257
conservation tillage, 36
definitional issues, 17
economics, 24, 33, 36, 38-39, 40, 42-43, 46, 145, 152, 153
historical perspectives, 17, 24, 34-35, 57, 59, 270
integrated pest management, 224-225, 270-271
occupational exposures, 60-61, 138, 137, 138
photosynthesis, 81
population dynamics, 184
R&D funding, 30
resistant pests, 57, 59, 152, 192-193, 257
timing of application, 224-225, 271
US use volume and expenditures, 24, 33, 36, 38-39, 40, 42-43, 46
wildland systems, 226
Historical perspectives, 20-28, 33-35, 40, 177, 192-193
commodity programs, phase out of, 110-111
cost and cost-benefit analysis, 24-25
crop loss estimates, 47-48
ecological factors, general, 25, 27
economic factors, general, 24, 27, 33, 36, 38-43
fungicides, 33, 36, 39, 41, 42-43
genetic engineering of pests, 173-174
herbicides, 17, 24, 34-35, 57, 59, 270
industrialization, 102, 105-106
insecticides, 17, 22-26, 34, 35, 40-43, 57
persistence of pesticides, 24, 25
pesticide registration, 70, 71
productivity, agricultural, 33-35
regulatory measures, 70, 71, 120-121, 124, 251;
see also Legislation
resistant pests, 25, 33, 56-57, 193
technological innovation, general, 21-27, 105-106
transgenic crops, 27, 106, 172
US consumption of and expenditures on pesticides, 24, 33, 36, 38-43
Hormones, see Endocrine effects
House and garden uses, 33, 36-38, 63, 89, 137-138, 145, 149, 164
Human health, 4, 30, 60-78, 129
air contamination, 63, 69, 72, 74-75, 76-
animal production systems, 221
application technologies, 4, 62-63, 66-67, 181-182, 212, 252-253
asthma, 37
cancer, 36, 62, 65, 68-69, 76, 86, 89, 118, 124, 128-129
cost-benefit analysis, 66, 227-228, 240, 246, 267
endocrine effects, 69, 70, 74, 81, 118, 128-130
house and garden pests and pesticides, 37-38
insecticides, 62, 60-64, 69, 70, 74, 76, 81, 118, 128-130
malaria, 173
minor crops, 11, 12-13, 66, 133, 263, 264-265, 266-267
product quality enhancements due to pesticides, 52-54
R&D recommendations, 6, 9, 253, 256, 260
reduced-risk pesticides, 2-3, 154-156, 251
soil contamination, 70, 72-73, 118, 178-179
stinging hymenopterans, 38
study at hand, methodology, 1, 3, 4, 31, 250, 251
urban pest management, 89, 223, 226, 250
weather effects vs pesticide effects, 136
see also Children;
Food residues;
Occupational exposures;
Public opinion;
Water contamination
Hypovirulence, 168
I
Illegal pesticide uses, 69
Imports and exports, 35, 50, 68, 237, 256
eco-labeling, 115
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 103
genetically modified organisms, regulations, 104
North American Free Trade Agreement, 103
organic foods, 114
see also Globalization
Information dissemination, see Consulting services;
Databases;
Extension services;
Professional education;
Public education
Ingestion, see Food residues
Inhalation, see Air contamination
Innovation, see Technological innovation
Insecticides, general, 214-218, 220-221, 222-223, 246
animal production, 71
annual cropping systems, general, 212
baits, 37-38, 135, 155, 181, 191
biopesticides, 19, 20, 58, 146, 148, 156-165
definitional issues, 2, 17-20 (passim)
DDT, 24, 56, 59, 62, 70, 80, 17
endocrine effects, humans, 69, 70, 74, 81, 118, 128-130
endocrine effects, insects, 25, 56, 163, 194;
see also Pheromones
entomopathogenic fungi, 156, 163-165
EPA, 37-38
historical perspectives, 17, 22-26, 34, 35, 40-43, 57
household uses, 37-38
human health effects, 62, 60-64, 69, 70, 74, 76, 81, 118, 128-130
market forces, 3, 24, 33, 36, 38-41, 46, 47-48, 59, 148, 149, 246
microbial, 19, 20, 58, 146, 148, 156-165, 169
viral, 151, 156, 159, 160-163, 168, 169, 171, 175
see also Bacillus thuringiensis
nontarget species, 80-81, 82-83, 213
occupational exposures, 60-64 (passim)
organophosphates, 59, 60, 61, 64, 80, 117, 127, 129
persistence in environment, 24, 61
resistant pests, 55-56, 57-58, 59, 194-197
resistant plants, 34, 44, 48, 152, 175, 168-169, 170-171, 173, 193-194, 224, 256
risk avoidance, 54
TCCD, 62
transportation of, 62
urban areas, 89, 223, 226, 250
US use volume and expenditures, 24, 36, 39, 40-43, 46
viral, 151, 156, 159, 160-163, 168, 169, 171, 175
Insect pheromones, see Pheromones
Insurance, see Crop insurance
Integrated Agricultural Producers, 154
Integrated food production systems
Europe, 115-116
New Zealand, 117
Integrated pest management (IPM), 40, 118-119, 133, 139, 213
Advanced Technology Program, 10-11, 264
biointegral farming/orchard systems, 119-120
cultural controls, 119-120
entomopathogenic fungi, 163-164
fungicides, 165-168
labeling and consumer preference, 88
microbial pesticides, 156-163
prescription use of restricted pesticides, 122, 133-134
professional education, 119
R&D, 5, 10-11, 119-120, 254, 255, 259, 264
resistant pests, 195
resistant plants, 168-169, 170-171, 173
urban areas, 89
Intellectual property, see Knowledge economy;
Patents
International Biosafety Conference, 104
International Life Sciences Institute, 130
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, 105
International perspectives
eco-labeling, 115-116
food residue regulations, 103-104, 106, 114, 115-117, 120
globalization, 6, 102, 103-105, 106, 108, 110-111, 147, 152-153, 197, 256, 259
global warming, 120-121, 187-189
ozone layer depletion, 76-77, 189-190, 256
public opinion of risks, 84
public opinion of transgenic crops, 88
R&D, cooperative efforts, 104-105
world expenditures on pesticides, 145, 152
see also Imports and exports;
Regional factors, world;
specific countries and regions
Interregional Research Project 4 (IR4), 11, 264
International Rice Research Initiative, 105
Invasive species, 190-191
livestock, toxic to, 190
photosynthesis, 190
resistance to pesticides, 58, 197
IPM, see Integrated pest management
IR4, see Interregional Project 4 (IR4)
Israel, 104-105
Italy, 116
J
K
Knowledge economy, 102, 107, 111-112
consultants, 109-110, 260, 271
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
see also Technology transfer
Kyoto protocol, 120-121
L
Labeling, 127
eco-labeling, 6, 88, 115-119, 255
Land-grant universities, 13-14, 15, 27, 268, 269
extension services, 14, 109-110
Language factors
farm workers, 65
labeling, 62
Latin America, 103
Legal issues
illegal pesticide uses, 69
liability and litigation, 121, 129
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
Legislation, 24
Clean Air Act Amendments, 77
education of legislators, 17
Farm Bill (1990), 121-122
Farmers' Risk Management Act, 12, 266
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 18, 123
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 2, 17-18, 19-20, 65-66, 120, 123, 128, 251
Federal Technology Transfer Act, 109
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 37-38, 70, 123-130, 133, 154, 156, 255, 262
Food Security Act, 121
foreign countries, 139
foreign trade, 103
Stevenson Wydler Act, 109
see also Regulatory issues
Liability and litigation, 121, 129
Livestock, see Animal production and transportation systems
M
Maize, see Corn
Malaria, 173
Market forces, 144-147, 152-154, 257
Bt, 146
combined budget-market models, 49, 227
commodity programs, phase out of, 110
cost-benefit analysis, 49, 227, 228-244
globalization, 6, 102, 103-105, 106, 108, 147, 152-153, 197, 256, 259
insecticides, 3, 24, 33, 36, 38-41, 46, 47-
organic food market, 6, 10, 88, 102, 113-
pest resistance to pesticides, 59-60
pharmaceuticals markets, 105
technological innovation, 102, 107-112, 147, 227, 228-244;
see also Technology transfer
tradable permit systems, 12, 121, 262, 265
US consumption of and expenditures on pesticides, 24, 33, 36, 38-41, 46, 47-48, 59
world expenditures on pesticides, 144-145, 152
see also Imports and exports;
Price factors;
Supply and demand
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 106
food residues, 67-68
R&D funding, 29
see also Biodegradability
Methyl bromide, 76-77
Michigan, 118
Microbial pesticides, 19, 20, 58, 156-168
cost and cost-benefit analysis, 158, 161
entomopathogenic fungi, 163-165
hypovirulence, 168
insecticides, 19, 20, 58, 146, 148, 156-165, 169
viral, 151, 156, 159, 160-163, 168, 169, 171, 175
integrated pest management, 156-163
see also Bacillus thuringiensis
Middle East, 104
Milk and milk products, see Dairy products
Minor crops
R&D, 5, 10, 11, 153, 156, 254, 263-264, 265, 268
registration issues, 11, 127, 128, 129, 133, 264-266
occupational exposures, 11, 12-13, 66, 133, 263, 264-265, 266-267
Montana, 219
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 77
Multinationals, see Globalization
N
Narrow-spectrum pesticides, 2, 80, 191, 194
National Agricultural Statistics Service, 66
National Cancer Institute, 65
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 65, 131
National Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, 65
National Institutes of Health, 7, 65, 259
National Organic Standards Program, 115
National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program, 7, 259
National Science Foundation (NSF), R&D funding, 7, 8, 28, 30, 259, 260
National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 78
Natural enemies, 19, 23, 25, 44, 82-83, 150, 169
Natural Foods Merchandiser, 87
Natural selection, see Evolution of pests;
Resistant pests;
Resistant plants
Nematodes, 2, 19, 55, 76, 150, 156, 170
Netherlands, 139
New Animal Drug Application, 20
New York State, 118
New Zealand, 116-117
Non-native species, see Invasive species
Nontarget species, 3, 4, 6, 60, 78-83, 178, 179, 213, 253
application technologies, 5, 179-181
broad spectrum pesticides, 24-25, 76, 79, 161, 162, 163-164, 210, 213-214, 219, 224
cost-benefit analysis, 243
eco-labeling, 118
historical perspectives, 25, 80
insecticides, 80-81, 82-83, 213
microorganisms and invertebrates, 19, 82, 83
natural enemies, 19, 23, 25, 27, 44, 82-83, 150, 169
natural product fungicides, 167
R&D recommendations, 5, 6, 254, 256, 258
study at hand, methodology, 3, 4, 250
wildland systems, 226
see also Human health
North Africa, 104
North American Free Trade Agreement, 103
NRI, see National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program
O
Oats, 127
Occupational exposures, 4-5, 9, 60-67, 119, 130-139, 252-253
application technologies, 4, 62-63, 66-67, 181-182, 252-253
attitudes of workers, 253-254
California, 56, 63-64, 68, 74, 77
cost-benefit analysis, 66, 240, 267
Department of Agriculture, 66
education on, 66-67
EPA, 12-13, 66-67, 130-133, 136, 137-138
farm workers, 64-67, 83, 130-139, 212, 265, 266-267
funding, 9, 12-13, 29, 263, 264-265, 266-267
herbicides, 60-61, 138, 137, 138
insecticides, 60-64 (passim)
manufacturing workers, 60-62
minor crops, 11, 12-13, 66, 133, 263, 264-265, 266-267
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 65, 131
odorants and dyes to identify toxicity, 13, 77, 135-139, 168, 267
R&D funding, 9, 12-13, 29, 263, 264-265, 266-267
regulation of, 4-5, 12-13, 61-62, 66-67, 130-139, 253-254, 262-263, 266-267
state government, 56, 63-64, 68, 74, 77, 130-132
urban pest management, 223, 226
weather effects vs pesticide effects, 136
Worker Protection Standards (WPS), 12-13, 66-67, 130-133, 136, 262-263, 266-267
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 62
Odorants and dyes, 13, 77, 135-139, 168, 267
Oklahoma, 219
Organic foods, 6, 10, 85, 87, 113-119, 139, 255-256
academic sector, 114-115
apples, 85, 87, 113-114, 115-117
Department of Agriculture, 115
Europe, 115-117
foreign trade, 114
R&D, 115-116
regulations, 6, 115-116, 255-256
supply and demand, 87, 88, 113, 114, 116-117
see also Eco-labeling
Organophosphates, 59, 60, 61, 64, 80, 117, 127, 129
Ozone layer depletion, 76-77, 189-190, 256
see also Ultraviolet radiation
P
Packaging and containers, 63, 134-135
see also Labeling
Partial-budget models, 45, 47-48, 49, 227
Patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
Perennial cropping systems, 211-212
Persistence of pesticides, 8, 28, 178
historical perspectives, 24, 25
see also Food residues
Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program, 120
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children, 123, 125, 252-253
Petrochemical industry, 105, 108
Pharmaceuticals, see Drugs
Pheromones, 20, 22, 25, 44, 56, 81, 145, 158, 162, 192, 194, 150, 162
Photosynthesis
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, 186-187
herbicides, 81
invasive species, 190
Plant disease, 35
see also Fungi and fungicides
Poland, 116
Pollinators, nontarget species, 82, 83
Population genetics, 8, 12, 184-185, 195, 246, 260
Potatoes, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42-44, 46, 47, 54, 82, 118, 128, 169, 213, 217-218
Precision agriculture, 8, 110, 112, 182-184
Predators, see Natural enemies
Prescription use of restricted pesticides, 122, 133-134
Price factors, 51, 52, 53, 85, 110, 154, 227, 228, 231-232, 235-239 (passim),
energy, 44
federal supports, 110-111, 235
food, 36, 86, 87, 114, 117, 237
partial budget models, 45, 48, 49
technological innovation and, 111-112, 237
see also Supply and demand
Private sector, general
cost-benefit analysis, 45, 47-52, 123, 127, 179, 227-244
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
R&D investment, 7, 10, 11, 106-110, 111-112, 146-154, 178, 234, 257, 258, 259, 263, 264
see also Knowledge economy
commodity programs, phase out of, 110
extension services (USDA), 14, 109-110
technology transfer, 106-108
Processing of agricultural products, 69-70
study at hand, methodology, 1, 250
vertical integration, 152
see also Storage;
Transportation
Productivity, agricultural, 5, 38, 41, 44-52, 234, 239, 243, 244, 251
citrus fruit, 39, 40, 42-44, 46, 47
combined budget-market models, 49
econometric models, 50-52
globalization and, 103
historical perspectives, 33-35
partial-budget models, 45, 47-48, 49
pest resistance to pesticides, 58-59
projections, 35-36
sustainability vs, 14
technology transfer and, 108
Professional education, 5, 13-14, 133, 134, 243, 258, 267-269
animal production systems, 221
consultants, 109-110, 260, 271
extension services, 14, 109-110, 132, 243, 260, 268, 271
integrated pest management, 119
occupational exposures, 66-67
supply and demand for, 13
see also Academic sector;
Land-grand universities
Projections
crop yield, 35-36
study at hand, methodology, 2, 251, 277
Public education, 9, 13, 14-15, 27, 89, 243, 254, 267
elementary and secondary, 14, 268, 269
occupational exposures, 66-67
risk communication, 9, 261, 268
study at hand, methodology, 1
Public opinion, 3, 13, 83-89, 104, 120, 268
aesthetic quality of food products, 36-37, 53, 85, 86, 238
costs and cost-benefit analysis, 84-86, 87
historical perspectives, 25, 120
research recommendations, 8-9, 261
voluntary environmental protection agreements, 122
urban pest-management systems, 89
R
Reduced-risk pesticides, 2-3, 154-156, 251
Regional factors, national, 213
cost-benefit analysis, 45, 48, 49, 50, 234, 229, 231, 232, 233-234, 237, 240, 242, 243, 244
crop rotation, 56
devolution of federal power, 106, 111
extension and research, 271
occupational exposures, 63-64, 132
pesticide substitution, 41, 44
pesticides, intensity of use, 211-212, 262
tradable permit systems, 262, 265
Regional factors, world
biodiversity, 192
pesticide market, 145
see also specific countries and regions
Registration of pesticides, 18, 70, 71, 77, 121, 212-124, 127-130, 194, 219
animal production systems, 221
baculoviruses, 163
Bt, 159-160
minor-crop products, 11, 127, 128, 129, 133, 264-266
reduced-risk pesticides, 2-3, 154-156
study at hand, methodology, 1, 3, 250, 277
technology transfer and, 108
time factors, 11, 179, 264-265
Regulatory issues, 9, 27, 120-139, 176, 212, 252, 261
animal production systems, 221
devolution of federal role, 106, 111
cost-benefit analyses, 45, 47-48, 49, 227-228, 231, 235, 237, 243
enforcement, 5, 55, 62-64, 66, 69, 110, 121, 122, 129, 130-131, 212, 243, 254, 258, 262-263, 266
economic factors, 45, 47-48, 49, 102, 103-104, 106, 115-117, 123, 227-228, 231, 235, 237, 243, 261-262
food residues, 53, 37-38, 70, 103-104, 106, 114, 121, 123-130
foreign countries/international organizations, 103-104, 106, 114, 115-117, 120
globalization, 103-104
historical perspectives, 70, 71, 120-121, 124, 251;
see also Legislation
household insecticides, 37-38
illegal pesticide uses, 69
incentives, 9, 11, 12, 19, 121, 122, 258
occupational exposures, 4-5, 12-13, 61-62, 66-67, 130-139, 253-254, 262-263, 266-267
organic products, 6, 115-116, 255-256
prescription use of restricted pesticides, 122, 133-134
processing of agricultural products, 70, 123-124
product grading standards, 53
public opinion of, 83
socioeconomic changes and, 102
study at hand, methodology, 3, 251, 277
tradable permit systems, 12, 121, 262, 265
unprocessed foods, 70, 123-124
water quality, 121-122
see also Environmental Protection Agency;
Food and Drug Administration;
Legislation;
Registration of pesticides;
Tradable permit systems
Remote sensing, 183-184
Research and development, 148-197
academic sector, 14, 106-109, 114-115, 145, 257, 267-268, 270-271
Agricultural Research Service, 14, 28, 109, 164, 167, 259
alternatives to chemical pesticides, 6
animal studies of pesticide effects, 124, 126
application technologies, 5, 8, 253, 258, 260, 262
biocontrols, general, 6, 8, 11-12, 28, 30, 256-257, 260, 261
cultural controls, 6, 8, 256-257, 260
databases, 109, 122, 125, 126, 128, 130, 185, 271
decentralization of efforts, 106-108, 109-110
Department of Agriculture, 7, 8, 28, 29, 128, 259, 260
ecological factors, general, 5, 7, 8, 28, 30, 253, 254, 255, 260, 261
ecologically based pest management (EBPM), 10, 259, 264
federal government, general, 1, 5, 7-9, 243, 250, 257-267, 276
funding, general, 7-11 (passim),;
see also Funding
globalization, impact on, 103, 104-105
historical perspectives, 7, 27, 28, 259
human health, 6, 9, 253, 256, 260
integrated pest management, 5, 10-11, 119-120, 254, 255, 259, 264
international cooperation, 104-105
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
land-grant universities, 13-14, 15, 27, 109-110, 268, 269
metabolic processes, 29
minor crops, 5, 10, 11, 153, 156, 254, 263, 265, 268, 263-264
National Science Foundation (NSF), 7, 8, 28, 30, 259, 260
nontarget species, 5, 6, 254, 256, 258
occupational exposures, 9, 12-13, 29, 263, 264-265, 266-267
organic farming, 115-116
pest resistance to pesticides, 59
private sector, cost-benefit analysis, 45, 47-52, 123, 127, 179, 227-244
investment, 7, 10, 11, 106-110, 111-
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
recommendations, 5-15 (passim),
regional factors, 271
resistant pests, 6-7, 8, 29, 253, 256-257
study at hand, methodology, 1-2, 210, 251-252
US-Israeli cooperation agreement, 104-105
see also Technological innovation;
Technology transfer;
Transgenic crops
Residues, see Food residues
Resistant pests, 55-60, 118, 152, 168, 176, 193-197, 224
animal production systems, 221
herbicides, 57, 59, 152, 192-193, 257
historical perspectives, 25, 33, 56-57, 193
insects, 55-56, 57-58, 59, 194-197
integrated pest management, 195
market forces and, 59-60
R&D funding, 29
R&D recommendations, 6-7, 8, 253, 256-257
study at hand, methodology, 3-4
transgenic crops, 195
Resistant plants, 2, 34, 44, 48, 152, 175, 168-169, 193-194, 224, 256
fungicides, 169
integrated pest management, 168-169, 170-171, 173
weeds, 57, 59, 152, 192-193, 257
see also Transgenic crops
Rice, 57, 105, 114, 116, 127, 145, 149, 153, 155, 165, 188, 193, 197
Risk communication, 9, 261, 268
Risk factors, 5
assessment methodology, 5, 9, 123-129, 234-235, 241-242, 254, 255
crop losses, 54-55
house and garden pesticides, 37-38
professional education, 13-14, 268, 269
public opinion, 8-9, 83-85, 268
reduced-risk pesticides, 3, 154-156, 251
study at hand, methodology, 3, 4
see also Air contamination;
Human health;
Resistant pests;
Soil contamination;
Water contamination
Row crops, general, 25, 39, 153, 211, 224, 225
see also specific crops
Rye, 127
S
Satellite technology
global positioning system, 8, 182
remote sensing, 183-184
Scandinavia, 121
Seeds and seedlings, 192-193
biopesticides, 156
plant resistance, 169
vertical integration of industry, 147, 152
Silent Spring, 25
Small and medium-sized companies, 11
alternative pesticides, 5
definition of pesticide, 2
federal protections, 111
recommendations, 5, 253, 254, 262
see also Public education;
Public opinion
conservation, 38
fertilizer, 33, 50, 110, 113, 119, 187, 223, 233
fumigants, 34, 38, 40, 41, 55, 76
see also Organic foods
Soil contamination, 70, 72-73, 118, 178-179
Sorghum, 127
South Dakota, 219
Soybeans, 38, 39, 40, 42-44, 46, 47, 54, 56, 128, 148, 188-189, 193, 212, 215
Spatial factors, 8
precision agriculture, 8, 110, 112, 182-
see also Population dynamics
Specialty crops, see Minor crops
Standards, see Regulatory issues
State government, 262
devolution of regulatory authority to, 106, 111
minor crops, 11
occupational exposures, 56, 63-64, 68, 74, 77, 130-132
product grading standards, 53
see also specific states
Stevenson Wydler Act, 109
Stewardship, 5, 12, 120, 255, 262, 265
fungicides, 53
household pesticides, 37
perishable crops, 36
Supply and demand
competition in pesticide market, 108, 231
cost-benefit analysis, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234-239 (passim)
crop insurance, 54
data on pesticides, 130
federal commodity programs, 110
food products, 27, 38, 49, 50, 53, 70, 85, 110, 125, 219, 255
organic foods, 87, 88, 113, 114, 116-
pesticides, 51, 103, 108, 130, 191, 193, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234-238 (passim)
professional education, 13
see also Price factors;
Productivity, agricultural
Sweden, 139
Switzerland, 117
T
Technological innovation, 2, 3, 106-109, 148-197, 252
Advanced Technology Program, 10-11, 264
biointegral farming/orchard systems, 119-120
cost-benefit analysis, 45, 47-52, 123, 127, 179, 227-244
crop yield projections and, 36
historical perspectives, 21-27, 105-106
knowledge economy, 102, 107, 111-112
consultants, 109-110, 260, 271
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
market forces, 102, 107-112, 147, 227, 228-244
precision agriculture, 8, 110, 112, 182-184
satellite technology, 8, 182, 183-184
see also Application technologies;
Biopesticides;
Biotechnology;
Research and development;
Transgenic crops
Technology transfer, 27
decentralization of R&D efforts, 106-108, 109-110
extension services, 14, 109-110, 132, 243, 260, 268, 271
international, 104-105
patents, 107-108, 111-112, 147, 231, 232, 257
privatization and, 106-108
productivity and, 108
registration of pesticides, 108
Technology Transfer Information Systems, 109
Temporal factors, 8
application technologies, evaporation, 180
biocontrol agents, long-term effects, 11-12
cost-benefit analysis, 179, 230, 243-244
persistence of pesticides in environment, 8, 19, 24, 25, 28, 61, 156, 178
weed control timing, 224-225, 271
see also Historical perspectives;
Population dynamics
Tomatoes, 82, 113-114, 128, 158, 222
Total Diet Study, 69
Tradable permit systems, 12, 121, 262, 265
Trade, see Globalization;
Imports and exports;
Market forces
Transgenic crops, 115, 148, 150-151, 152, 168-173, 252, 265
Bacillus thuringiensis, resistance to, 58
eco-labeling, 115
foreign countries, regulations, 104
fungicides, 62
historical perspectives, 27, 106, 172
projections for extent of, 251
public opinion, 88
resistant pests, 195
study at hand, methodology, 2, 3-4, 251
Transgenic natural enemies, 27, 252
Transportation
pesticides, 62
Tropical regions, 164, 186, 188
U
Ultraviolet radiation, 76-77, 162, 189-190, 256
United Nations International Biosafety Conference, 104
Universities and colleges, see Academic sector;
Land-grant universities
Urban areas
integrated pest management, 89
occupational exposures, 223, 226
pest-management systems, 89, 223, 226, 250
US-Israeli Binational Agricultural Research and Development Fund, 104-105
V
Vegetables, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42-45, 46, 47, 49, 76, 113-114, 116, 118, 148-149, 213, 219, 222-223, 250
Bt, 157-158
product grading standards, 53
public opinion, 84
scouting, 54
see also specific vegetables
Viruses
human, 136
hypovirulence, 168
insect, 151, 156, 159, 160-163, 168, 169, 171, 175
Voluntary environmental protection agreements, 122
W
Washington State, 84, 118, 132, 161, 212
Water contamination, 23, 61, 69, 70, 72-74, 77, 78, 80, 87, 118, 178, 190, 211, 226
regulatory actions, 121-122
Weather, see Climate and weather
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, 187
biocontrol, 12, 41, 82-83, 175
global warming, 188
integrated pest management, 224-225, 270-271
resistant pests, 57, 59, 152, 192-193, 257
population dynamics, 184-185
timing of control measures, 224-225, 271
see also Herbicides
Weed Society of America, 36
Wetlands, 122
Wheat, 34-35, 36, 38, 39, 42-44, 46, 47, 54, 127, 188, 212-213, 214-215
see also Forests and forestry
Wildlife, see Biodiversity;
Birds;
Invasive species;
Nontarget species
Wisconsin, 118
World Wildlife Fund, 118
Worker Protection Standards (WPS), 12-13, 66-67, 130-133, 136, 262, 266-267
Workers, see Employment issues;
Farm workers;
Occupational exposures
Y
Yield, see Productivity, agricultural