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OCR for page 298
8
INDOOR DAMPNESS
AND As th ma
One of the environmental factors most commonly associ-
ated with respiratory disease is building dampness. This chapter
presents an overview of the research on dampness and human
health, and the nature, causes, and control of dampness problems.
There is a large and detailed literature addressing the engineer-
ing and physics underlying moisture control in buildings (e.g.,
Trechsel, 1994~. In addition, professional organizations such as the
American Society for Testing and Materials and the American So-
ciety of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers
publish reference materials and promulgate consensus standards
intended, in part, to limit indoor moisture problems. A task force
formed by the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and
Climate published guidelines for the control of moisture-related
problems in 1996 (Flannigan and Morey, 1996~.
A complete treatment of the science and art of controlling in-
door moisture is beyond the scope of this report. As this overview
suggests, moisture in buildings is an area of research that has the
potential to significantly affect public health. The committee be-
lieves that better communication between health, engineering,
and building professionals is likely to result in more informed
studies on the health effects associated with moisture problems
and the means to prevent or remediate these problems. It strongly
encourages efforts to bring these groups together to educate one
298
OCR for page 299
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
299
another on their areas of expertise and to establish collaborations
aimed at improving the public's health.
INDOOR WATER SOURCES AND REMOVAL PROCESSES
Water is present in buildings as vapor within the indoor air,
as a liquid reservoir, as a solid (ice or frost), as a layer of mol-
ecules adsorbed on the surface of building materials, or as con-
densation within the pores of these materials. A continuous pro-
cess of moisture transfer occurs among the phases and indoor
locations of water. The observed relationship of moisture prob-
lems to asthma is presumed to be a consequence of the influence
of moisture on the growth of microorganisms on building materi-
als; consequently, the moisture content of materials is of primary
interest for asthma. However, the moisture content of building
materials is influenced by the other phases and locations of mois-
ture within the building.
Sources of water on or within building materials include leaks
of liquid water from interior plumbing or from outdoors above or
below grade. Other sources include melting of ice or frost (e.g., in
attics), capillary transport from moist soil (e.g., through concrete
foundations), water vapor condensation, and the water present
in building materials (e.g., wood or concrete) at the time of build-
ing construction, which is particularly significant during the first
year after construction. Additionally, water vapor from air sur-
rounding a building material adsorbs on or in building materials.
The equilibrium moisture content of a building material sur-
rounded by air is primarily a function of the relative humidity of
the air; however, the equilibrium relationship varies considerably
among building materials (Kumaran et al., 1994~.
Sources of water vapor in indoor air include the water vapor
in incoming outdoor air, which is often a dominant source during
hot humid weather. Air that is drawn into buildings from craw!
spaces or after passing through soil and cracks in the building
substructure may be particularly humid. Additional indoor wa-
ter vapor sources include human respiration; evaporation that
occurs from water-using activities such as cooking, bathing, wash-
ing, and drying; intentional humidification; evaporation from liq-
uid water that originates from leaks or condensation; and the de
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300
CLEARING THE AIR
sorption of water from materials. Combustion products that en-
ter the indoor air space due to the use of unvented gas or kero-
sene heaters or a failure of the venting of "vented" heating equip-
ment can be a large source of water vapor. Christian (1994)
summarizes information on the rates of water vapor production
from many of these sources.
Removal processes for indoor water vapor include the flow
of air with water vapor from indoors to outdoors (i.e., ventila-
tion), absorption on surfaces, the intentional water vapor conden-
sation that occurs in air conditioning and dehumidification sys-
tems, and unintentional water vapor condensation on surfaces.
Water vapor condenses from air when the air temperature is
cooled below the dew-point temperature. In buildings, uninten-
tional water vapor condensation occurs when humid air contacts
coo! surfaces. In winter, the temperature of portions of the build-
ing envelope that exchange heat with outdoor air or soil may fall
below the dew-point temperature of indoor air, leading to water
vapor condensation. The condensation that occurs on windows is
a familiar phenomenon; however, condensation can also occur
within the building envelope as humid indoor air passes through
the envelope and comes in contact with coo! surfaces. In the sum-
mer, surface temperatures in air-conditioned buildings may be
lower than the dew-point temperature of the outdoor air. Con-
densation may occur as the warm humid outdoor air flows into
the building and contacts these surfaces. Vapor barriers (i.e.,
sheets of material with a low permeability to water vapor that
also retard air flow) are commonly installed in building envelopes
to limit moisture transport and the associated risks of condensa-
tion. Vapor barriers should be installed near the warm side of the
building envelope for example, near the inner surface of walls
in a building located in a cold climate. Improper placement of
vapor barriers or unintentional vapor barriers can lead to con-
densation. Impermeable viny! wallpaper located on the inner sur
iAn estimated 0.5 million unvented gas heaters were sold in 1996 (Apse, 1996~.
Even a small 10,000 Btu-per-hour unvented gas heater, about one-tenth the ca-
pacity of a residential furnace system, would release water vapor equivalent to
about 10 L per day of liquid water (Apse, 1996~.
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INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
301
faces of walls of air-conditioned buildings has been associated
with moisture problems behind the wallpaper (Lstiburek and
Carmody, 1994; Rose, 1994~.
In mechanically ventilated buildings, pressure differences be-
tween indoors and outdoors or between indoors and the sur-
rounding soil are generated by mechanically produced airflows.
These pressure differences modify the rates of moist air transport
through the building envelope in a manner that may inhibit or
increase indoor moisture problems. In cold climates, the design
intent is often to maintain buildings Repressurized relative to out-
doors and to prevent humid indoor air from flowing outward
through the building envelope. In warm, humid climates, pres-
surization of the building to limit infiltration of humid outdoor
air is usually the design intent. Because houses rarely have con-
tinuously operating mechanical ventilation systems, outdoor air
infiltrates into the building through portions of the building en-
velope and indoor air exfiltrates through other sections of the en-
velope.
Based on this discussion, the risk factors for moisture prob-
lems include water leaks from the building interior or exterior;
unusually high rates of water vapor generation indoors; a high
rate of moisture entry into buildings from moist soil (often associ-
ated with problems in water drainage around foundations); a low
rate of ventilation particularly during the winter (see Chapter 10~;
the absence or improper location of vapor barriers; insufficient
water vapor removal by dehumidifiers or air-conditioning sys-
tems; and an unusually cold or unusually humid climate. The
prevalence of these different risk factors and the implications for
microbiological growth are not well documented; however, water
leaks are very common (see below) and cited in many case stud-
ies of building-related respiratory health problems.
Measures of Dampness
Moisture Measurements
Temperature and relative humidity measurements are the
fundamental information regarding moisture in buildings. Hu-
midity is usually measured psychometrically and is represented
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302
CLEARING THE AIR
as relative humidity the amount of water in the air relative to
the amount of water the air can hold at saturation at the same
temperature and pressure.
At present there are no accepted protocols for characterizing
the moisture levels of buildings. However, wide variations in both
temperature and humidity are to be expected from place to place
and over time, daily and seasonally. Given this variation, moni-
toring may be necessary to track environmental changes over
time. The design of a monitoring system depends on the type of
information one desires. Building monitoring may be designed to
disclose center-of-room moisture conditions, moisture conditions
at particular (perhaps troublesome) locations, response of the
building to exterior conditions such as the entry of rainwater,
moisture movement within the building, and change in humidity
conditions over time. However, monitoring cannot be used to dis-
cern the appearance of undesirable conditions away from where
instruments are placed, nor can it be used to determine that all
moisture-related aspects in a building are acceptable.
There are a wide variety of tools available for measuring spe-
cific moisture conditions (Lagus, 1994~. Infrared pyrometers can
be used to identify surface temperature anomalies, which may
become moisture and mold sites. Pin-type moisture meters mea-
sure material moisture content, although calibration difficulties
may limit their effectiveness. Smoke pencils can help identify en-
velope leakage sites and also the effectiveness of combustion
product discharge. Pressure difference instruments (manometers
and micromanometers) may be employed to estimate the role of
air pressure and movement in the development of water prob-
lems in building envelopes.
Abe and colleagues (1996) developed a sensor for determin-
ing the ability of fungi to grow in microenvironments. The
method uses an agar medium impregnated with spores of a
xerophilic fungus and relies on water absorption from the envi-
ronment to stimulate fungal growth. Microclimate differences and
changes were documented in an apartment using the method.
Visible Signs of Dampness
Although humans are poor humidity sensors, there are signs
OCR for page 303
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
303
of inappropriate moisture conditions that can be directly per-
ceived. Such perceptions are the basis for most epidemiologic
studies in which moisture condition data are collected by ques-
tionnaire. Questions are typically formulated to seek information
on whether conditions such as leaks, floods, wet basements, win-
dow condensation, visible fungal growth, or moldy odors are cur-
rently present or have been present in the past. It should be noted,
however, that reporting bias is an important source of error in
such studies. Dales and colleagues (1997) report that under some
conditions, allergy patients may be more likely than nonallergic
people to report visible fungal growth. Additionally, smokers may
be less likely than nonsmokers to report such growth.
Moisture conditions in buildings are best discovered through
direct observation and inspection. Home inspectors are known to
rely on smell to supplement visual inspection. Among the items
typically included in an inspection report are presence of mold,
water stains, evidence of leaks or flooding, current leaks, craw!
space conditions, attic sheathing condition, and overall stoutness
or dilapidation of the building. Characterization of rainwater dis-
charge and management is also necessary, given the importance
and prevalence of foundation leakage to the overall moisture bal-
ance of a building.
Extent of the Home Dampness Problem
The reported percentage of homes with dampness problems
varies widely depending on geography, the approach to home
selection, and the types of questions or inspection procedures
used to detect such problems. Selected study results are presented
in Table 8-1.
The U.S. Census collects data on water leakage in homes. The
results for 1973-1984 are reported in the Annual Housing Survey.
Results after 1984 are reported in the American Housing Survey
for the United States. Based on these data, Figure 8-1 shows the
percentage of homes with water leakage from indoor and out-
door water sources. The overlap between these categories and the
total percentage of homes with water leakage are not reported.
The reported percentages of homes with water leaks are relatively
constant, and most water leaks are from outdoors. Based on the
OCR for page 304
304
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OCR for page 305
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
21 - .
19
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15
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1985 1 987
· ~
l
1989 1 991
305
Water Leakage from Inside of Structure
< Water Leakage from Outside of Structure
-~3 l
1993 1 995
FIGURE 8-1 Prevalence of water leaks in U.S. housing, based on data from
the U.S. Census.
data in Table 8-1 and Figure 8-1, a substantial portion of homes
have moisture problems.
Underlying Causes of Moisture Problems
Although extensive guidance is available on means of pre-
venting and remediating moisture problems in both residential
and commercial buildings (e.g., Trechsel, 1994, chapters 15-22),
moisture problems are very common. Economic and institutional
barriers contribute to moisture problems. For example, water
leaks will not be repaired if financial resources are inadequate.
Also, the relevant features of building design, operation, and
maintenance may be determined substantially by speculative
builders or other decision-makers who are substantially unaf-
fected by future moisture problems. Similarly, landlords who do
not reside in the affected building may not be motivated to repair
water leaks rapidly.
Despite the technical knowledge about prevention of mois-
ture problems that is available in current scientific and engineer-
ing literature, the errors in building design and construction re-
ported in case studies indicate that many architects, engineers,
builders, and roofers have an inadequate knowledge of the means
of preventing moisture problems. Additionally, these profession-
als and tradesmen, and the general public, may not fully under-
stand the association between moisture problems and health
problems. The lack of awareness of health consequences reduces
the motivation to prevent or correct problems.
OCR for page 306
306
CLEARING THE AIR
Moisture and Sources for Disease Agents
The relationship between dampness and respiratory disease
is considered to be linked to allergens or other materials derived
from fungal growth, or dust mites, or both, although none of these
pathways has been clearly documented. Billings and Howard
(1998) reviewed the literature on indoor dampness and respira-
tory disease and concluded that dampness increases allergen bur-
den, leading to increased risk of developing asthma.
Fungi
Fungi are among the more versatile organisms with respect to
water requirements and are able to grow with extremely little
moisture under some conditions. Fortunately, conditions in build-
ings do not usually permit such growth, which occurs only under
optimal substrate and temperature conditions for the fungus. The
majority of fungal growth occurs on surfaces that are continu-
ously wet for many days. Such wetness may occur on cold sur-
faces where condensation is continuously present, in materials
that remain at or near the dew point (e.g., carpeting on
uninsulated cold or damp surfaces), or in materials that get wet
as a result of leaks or floods. Fungal growth can also occur with-
out the presence of liquid water from leaks or condensation. High
relative humidities (e.g., greater than approximately 80%) in-
crease the risk of fungal growth on some surfaces (Foarde et al.,
1996~. It should be noted that indoor middle-of-the-room humid-
ity is not a consistent predictor of the presence of fungal growth,
and fungal control cannot be achieved just with ambient indoor
air humidity control. Fungi grow on surfaces under microenvi-
ronmental conditions that may be very different from those in
room air (Li and Hsu, 1997~.
Data are equivocal on the relationship of airborne fungi to
humidity or other dampness indicators. Verhoeff and colleagues
(1992) found only a weak relationship between airborne fungi and
dampness as characterized by a checklist. On the other hand,
Garrett and colleagues (1998) found associations between high
airborne fungal concentrations and musty odor, water intrusion,
limited ventilation, and high indoor humidity. Relatively weak
OCR for page 307
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
307
relationships have also been shown for dampness indicators and
concentrations of some fungi in dust (Dales et al., 1997; Douwes
et al., 1999~. Visible fungal growth has been associated with high
airborne concentrations of some fungi but not others. However,
good studies examining the association between surface and air-
borne fungi are lacking.
Dust Mites
Dust mite populations have been shown experimentally to
respond to increasing humidity (Arlian et al., 1998~. Dust mite
allergen concentrations have been associated with humidity and
signs of dampness (Couper et al., 1998; Julge et al., 1998; Nicolai
et al., 1998; van Strien et al., 1994), as well as with conditions
known to lead to dampness such as increasing number of occu-
pants and reduced ventilation (Couper et al., 1998; Sundell et al.,
1995; van Strien et al., 1994~. Chapter 5 contains a discussion of
the influence of humidity levels on dust mites.
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND RESPIRATORY DISEASE
Overview
Table 8-2 summarizes studies that report odds ratios (ORB)
for the association of dampness or visible mold with asthma.
Ronmark and colleagues (1998) ranked home dampness sec-
ond only to family history as a risk factor for asthma in northern
Sweden. Die and colleagues (1999) report an association between
ventilation rate and dampness in the home and bronchial obstruc-
tion during the first year of life. The OR for bronchial obstruction
related to dampness in low-ventilation homes was 9.6 (confidence
interval [CI] 1.05-87.4~; in high ventilation homes the OR was 2.3
(CI 0.83-6.39~.
Connections between animal allergens, dampness, and
asthma have been made in several studies. Norback and col-
leagues (1995) report that symptoms related to asthma were more
common in dwellings with house dust mites and visible signs of
dampness or microbial growth. However, a later study by some
of the same individuals (Norback et al., 1999) reports no connec
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308
TABLE S-2 Oclcls Ratios (ORB) for Association of Dampness or
Visible Molcl with Asthma
CLEARING THE AIR
Author/ Population Dampness OR (Cl) for Asthma
Location (N) Indicator Related Health Effect
Aldous et al., Infants (936) Presence or absence of 1.8 (1.1-3.0Ja
1996 (Arizona) evaporative cooler
Nafstad et al., Children: Questionnaires, 3.8 (2.0-7.2Ja
1998(Norway) 251 cases, homevisits
251 controls
Yazicioglu et al., Children: Questionnaire 2.62 (1.13-6.81Jb
1998 (Turkey) 597 controls,
85 asthmatics
Yang et al., 1 998b Children: Reported dampness 1.77 (1 .24-2.53Jb
(Taiwan) 86 cases,
86 controls
Norback et al., Adults: Observed dampness Overall: 1.8 (1.1-3.0Jb
1999 (Sweden) 98 asthmatics, Floor: 4.6 (2.0-10.5Ja
357 controls
Jaakkola et al., Children (2,568) Any dampness or mold 1.10 (0.54-2.24)b
1993 (Finland) 2.17-2.62a
Slezak et al., Head Start Signs of dampness, 4.5 (1.25-16.3Jb
1998 (U.S.) children visible mold 1.94 (1.23-3.04Jb
(1 ,085)
Hu et al., 1997 Young adults Mold growth 2.0 (1.2-3.2Jb
(2,041 ~
Brunekreef et al., Children Dampness and mold 1.27-2.12a
1989 (Netherlands) (4,625)
Strachan, 1988 Children Visible mold 3.0 (1.72-5.25Ja
(Scotland) (873)
Yang et al., 1998a Children: Reported dampness 2.65b
(Taiwan) 165 cases,
165 controls
Nicolai et al., 1998 Adolescents Observed dampness 16.14 (3.53_73.73Ja
(Germany) (1 55)
Jedrychowski and Children Reported dampness 1.6 (1.1-2.5Ja
Flak, 1998 (Poland) (1,129)
NOTE: Cl = confidence interval.
aWheeze, persistent cough, bronchial obstruction.
bAsthma.
OCR for page 309
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
309
lion between allergy to dust mites and either current asthma or
home dampness in Sweden. In another study, positive skin tests
to dust mite allergens were more prevalent among occupants of
damp houses than among occupants of homes without reported
signs of dampness (Iversen and DahI, 1995~. Lindfors and col-
leagues (1995) report that a combination of high-dose exposure to
cat or dog allergen, environmental tobacco smoke, and damp
housing was significantly associated with asthma (OR = 8.0; CI
1.9-34.1~.
Williamson and colleagues (1997) report a correlation between
mold growth indicators and asthma (196 age- and sex-matched
subjects): r = 0.23, p < .035. Norback and colleagues (1999) report
that allergy to fungi (CIadosporium or Alternaria) was more preva-
lent in damp homes (9.3% versus 3.9%) and fungal sensitivity was
related to current asthma (OR = 3.4; CI 1.4-8.5~. Brunekreef and
colleagues (1989) studied 4,625 children relating symptoms and
pulmonary function to reported dampness and molds in the
homes. The OR for reported molds varied from 1.27 to 2.12. There
was a drop in FEF25_75 of 1.6% associated with reported mold.
Among a population sample of 873 children, Strachan (1988) stud-
ied respiratory symptoms, measured pulmonary function, and
evaluated the home environment for reported dampness or mold.
Wheezing in the past year was most closely associated with vis-
ible mold (adjusted OR = 3.0; CI 1.72-5.25~. However, there was
no association with the degree of bronchospasm in children mea-
sured in homes with and without mold; the association may be
due to awareness of mold leading to increased reporting. The
prevalence of lower-respiratory symptoms (any cough, phlegm,
wheezing, or wheeze with dyspnea) was increased among those
reporting dampness or mold compared with those not reporting
dampness or mold as follows: 38% versus 27% among current
smokers, 21% versus 14% among ax-smokers, and 19% versus
11% among nonsmokers (all p values < .001~. Mater and col-
leagues (1997) indicate an association between reported house-
hold water damage and physician-diagnosed asthma in Seattle
school children.
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310
CLEARING THE AIR
Conclusions Regarding Health Effects
1. Damp conditions are associated with the existence of doc-
tor-diagnosed asthma and with the presence of symptoms con-
sidered to reflect asthma (i.e., dampness may lead to the develop-
ment of asthma).
2. Symptom prevalence among asthmatics is also related to
home dampness indicators (i.e., dampness may exacerbate exist-
ing asthma).
3. The factors related to dampness that actually lead to the
development of disease and to disease exacerbation are not yet
confirmed, but probably relate to dust mite and fungal allergens.
DAMPNESS CONTROL
Implementation of measures that are effective in reducing
dampness problems should be a logical approach to lessening the
indoor asthma problem. Several recommendations for prevention
and remediation of moisture problems, including periodic inspec-
tions to prevent water leakage, are provided in a review article
based on a workshop held by the American Thoracic Society (ATS,
1997~. However, no intervention studies clearly document that
any form of dampness control works effectively to reduce symp-
toms or to reduce the chances of asthma development. Rose (1994)
provides recommendations for retrofitting existing buildings for
dampness control. Peat and colleagues (1998) suggest that retrofit-
ting for dampness control is expensive and unlikely to have long-
term beneficial effects, and that houses be designed to prevent
dampness problems.
Logical steps can be taken to reduce dampness problems, and
most have been documented as effective. For houses, these steps
include
1. powered mechanical ventilation to remove and/or dilute
occupant-generated moisture (Harrje, 1994~;
2. proper installation of vapor barriers (Lsteburek and
Carmody, 1993~;
3. channeling ground water away from foundations and seal
OCR for page 311
INDOOR DAMPNESS AND ASTHMA
311
ing below-ground walls to prevent water intrusion (Lstiburek and
Carmody, 1994~;
4. properly protecting ground-level concrete slabs from mois-
ture intrusion (Lstiburek and Carmody, 1994~; and
5. constructing craw! spaces to prevent water intrusion
(Lstiburek and Carmody, 1994~.
RES"RCH NEEDS
With respect to the association of dampness problems with
asthma development and symptoms, research is needed to clearly
identify the causative agents (e.g., molds, dust mite allergens) and
to document more accurately the relationship between dampness
and allergen exposure. Research is also needed to characterize
and demonstrate the reductions in asthma morbidity from pre-
vention or remediation of moisture problems.
Regarding characterization of moisture problems, research is
needed to:
1. develop accurate, standardized protocols for assessing
moisture problems in buildings;
2. develop and document the effectiveness of specific mea-
sures for dampness reduction in existing buildings; and
3. develop standardized, effective protocols for flood cleanup
that will limit microbial growth.
In addition to these research needs, there is a need for improved
education of the public about the consequences of moisture prob-
lems and for better education of building professionals regarding
means of preventing moisture-related problems.
REFERENCES
Abe K, Nagao Y. Nakada T. Sakuma S. 1996. Assessment of indoor climate in an
apartment by use of a fungal index. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
62(3):959-963.
OCR for page 312
312
CLEARING THE AIR
Aldous MB, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Taussig LM.1996. Evaporative
cooling and other home factors and lower respiratory tract illness during the
first year of life. American Journal of Epidemiology 143~5~:423-430.
ATS (American Thoracic Society).1997. Achieving Healthy Indoor Air. Report of
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Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 156~3~:S33-S64.
Apte MG. 1996. Unvented gas space heaters: drainless sinks. Home Energy
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Arlian LG, Confer PD, Rapp CM, Vyszenski-Moher DL, Chang JC. 1998.
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pteronyssinus, and Euroglyphus maynei (Acari: Pyroglyphidae) at specific
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Billings CG, Howard P. 1998. Damp housing and asthma [Review]. Monaldi
Archives for Chest Disease 53~1~:43-49.
Brunekreef B. 1992. Damp housing and adult respiratory symptoms. Allergy
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Brunekreef B. Dockery DW, Speizer FE, Ware JH, Spengler JD, Ferris BG. 1989.
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Christian JE. 1994. Moisture Sources. In Moisture Control in Buildings, Trechsel
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Couper D, Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T. 1998. Determinants of dust mite allergen
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Dales RE, Burnett R. Zwanenburg H. 1991. Adverse health effects among adults
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Dales RE, Miller D, McMullen E.1997. Indoor air quality and health: validity and
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Douwes J. van der Sluis B. Doekes G. van Leusden F. Wijnands L, van Strien R.
Verhoeff A, Brunekreef B. 1999. Fungal extracellular polysaccharides in house
dust as a marker for exposure to fungi: relations with culturable fungi,
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
indoor air
