NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DMR-9802308, the U.S. Department of Commerce under Grant No. 43SBNB867063, and the U.S. Department of Energy under Grant No. DE-FG02-96ER45554. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
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Copyright 1999 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
SOLID STATE SCIENCES COMMITTEE
THOMAS P. RUSSELL,
University of Massachusetts–Amherst,
Chair
MYRIAM P. SARACHIK,
CUNY/City College of New York,
Vice Chair
PAUL A. FLEURY,
University of New Mexico,
Past Chair
GABRIEL AEPPLI,
NEC Research Institute
FRANK S. BATES,
University of Minnesota
MARC A. KASTNER,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
GERALD D. MAHAN,
University of Tennessee at Knoxville
DAVID MONCTON,
Argonne National Laboratory
CHERRY A. MURRAY,
Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies
VENKATESH NARAYANAMURTI,
Harvard University
JULIA M. PHILLIPS,
Sandia National Laboratories
JAMES ROBERTO,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
J. MICHAEL ROWE,
National Institute of Standards and Technology
DALE W. SCHAEFER,
University of Cincinnati
KEVIN D. AYLESWORTH, Program Officer
BOARD ON PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
ROBERT C. DYNES,
University of California, San Diego,
Chair
ROBERT C. RICHARDSON,
Cornell University,
Vice Chair
GORDON BAYM,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
WILLIAM BIALLEK,
NEC Research Institute
VAL FITCH,
Princeton University
RICHARD D. HAZELTINE,
University of Texas at Austin
JOHN HUCHRA,
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
JOHN C. MATHER,
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
CHERRY A. MURRAY,
Lucent Technologies
ANNEILA I. SARGENT,
California Institute of Technology
JOSEPH H. TAYLOR, JR.,
Princeton University
KATHLEEN C. TAYLOR,
General Motors Research and Development Center
J. ANTHONY TYSON,
Lucent Technologies
CARL WIEMANN,
University of Colorado/JILA
PETER G. WOLYNES,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
DONALD C. SHAPERO, Director
ROBERT L. RIEMER, Associate Director
KEVIN AYLESWORTH, Program Officer
JOEL PARRIOTT, Program Officer
NATASHA CASEY, Senior Administrative Associate
GRACE WANG, Senior Project Associate
MICHAEL LU, Project Associate
COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
PETER M. BANKS,
Veridian ERIM International, Inc.,
Co-chair
W. CARL LINEBERGER,
University of Colorado/JILA,
Co-chair
WILLIAM F. BALLHAUS, JR.,
Lockheed Martin Corporation
SHIRLEY CHIANG,
University of California, Davis
MARSHALL H. COHEN,
California Institute of Technology
RONALD G. DOUGLAS,
Texas A&M University
SAMUEL H. FULLER,
Analog Devices, Inc.
JERRY P. GOLLUB,
Haverford College
MICHAEL F. GOODCHILD,
University of California, Santa Barbara
MARTHA HAYNES,
Cornell University
WESLEY T. HUNTRESS, JR.,
Carnegie Institution
CAROL JANTZEN,
Westinghouse Savannah River Company
PAUL KAMINSKI,
Technovation, Inc.
KENNETH H. KELLER,
University of Minnesota
JOHN R. KREICK,
Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company (retired)
DANIEL KLEPPNER,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MARSHA I. LESTER,
University of Pennsylvania
DUSA M. McDUFF,
State University of New York at Stony Brook
JANET NORWOOD,
U.S. Commissioner of Labor Statistics (retired)
M. ELISABETH PATÉ-CORNELL,
Stanford University
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS,
Brookhaven National Laboratory
ROBERT J. SPINRAD,
Xerox PARC (retired)
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director (through July 1999)
MYRON F. UMAN, Acting Executive Director (from August 1999)
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
These proceedings have been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC's) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The contents of the review comments and the draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
Gordon A. Baym, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
David Campbell, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Charles W. Clark, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Denis McWhan, Brookhaven National Laboratory,
James J. Rhyne, University of Missouri, and
Nicholas P. Samios, Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Although the individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, the responsibility for the final content of this proceedings rests solely with the authoring committee and the NRC.