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OCR for page 18
4
Extravehicular Activity, Robotics, and
Supporting Technologies
EXTRAVEHICULAR MOBILITY UNIT AND
EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY TOOLS
The extravehicular mobility unit (EMU) is an anthropo-
morphic crew enclosure made up of two major subassem-
blies: the space suit assembly (SSA) and the life support
system (LSS). The SSA consists largely of soft goods, with
one major exception, the hard upper torso (HUT), a vest-like
fiberglass structure that forms the central part of the SSA.
The arms, helmet, lower torso, and LSS are mounted on the
HUT. The LSS contains a primary life support subsystem
(PLSS) and a backup purge flow system, the secondary
oxygen package. The EMU allows the EVA crew member
to work outside the ISS free of umbilicals to the spacecraft.
It is pressurized to 29.6 kPa (4.3 psia), supplies oxygen,
removes carbon dioxide, rejects metabolic and environmental
heat, and removes moisture from perspiration and exhaled
breath. The EMU, which has been called a one-person space-
craft, is made up of more than 100 major components.
In addition to NASA's EMU, the Russian "Orlan" space
suit will also be used on the ISS (Poulos, 1999~. Although
this will provide redundancy, the complexity of maintaining
and operating two separate systems that provide essentially
the same basic EVA capability will double the requirements
for resources and funding.
The current Russian space suit used for EVAs on the Mir
is a derivative of the semirigid suit used during the Salyut-
Soyuz program. This suit, the "Orlan-DMA," is the fourth
generation model of the space suit. The Orlan DMA and the
American EMU are similar in many ways. The Orlan-DMA
space suit has an integrated life support system to enable
EVA operations. The suit can be adjusted for size and has a
metal upper torso and fabric arms and legs. The metal ball
bearings and sizing adjustments are notable features. The
Orlan-DMA has redundant, self-contained, integrated, pres-
surization and oxygen supply systems in a backpack-type
PLSS that can be maintained on orbit. The oxygen supply
system includes reserve oxygen storage and equipment for
18
controlling and maintaining the pressure. The ventilation
system and environmental gas composition-control system
include removal units for carbon dioxide and contaminants,
as well as gas circulation-control equipment. The space suit
has no umbilical lines. Oxygen, water supplies, pumps, and
blowers are located inside the rear hatch. Unlike the EMU,
which is a waist entry suit, the Orlan-DMA is donned
through a rear hatch. Unassisted entry requires only two to
three minutes.
Most of the tools in the large inventory of ISS EVA tools
were designed to meet the needs of crew members perform-
ing specific tasks. Tools are reused for other tasks only if
mission similarity allows and if crew safety and productivity
are not compromised. The current inventory includes
200 different part numbers and more than 4,000 parts stored
in four separate storage areas. NASA is planning to store all
of the tools for the ISS in a centralized, ground-based stor-
age area under the control of United Space Alliance. Efforts
are also under way by EVA planners to develop standard-
ized tools to reduce training time as ISS EVA training
evolves from task-specific training (the mode of operation
dunned ISS assembly) to skills-based training (the mode of
operation after ISS Assembly Complete) (Harbaugh and
Poulos, 1999~.
During the assembly phase of the ISS, unprecedented
demands are being placed on both NASA and contractor per-
sonnel and facilities. For example, during the four years of
ISS assembly, 1,600 hours of EVA are planned. Compare
this to the 543 hours (90 EVAs) during the first 15 years of
the Space Shuttle program. This three-fold increase is known
as "the wall" of EVA (Figure 4-1~. The ISS assembly
demands will place significant stress on personnel and
processing/training facilities, and the potential burnout of
skilled people and shortage of facilities represent increased
risks to the program (Poulos, 1999~. During the ISS opera-
tional phase, NASA projects that there will be 20 EVAs (i.e.,
120 EVA hours or 240 crew hours) per year.
Training for ISS assembly and training for ISS operations
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EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY, ROBOTICS, AND SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGIES
are fundamentally different. Because components are added
to the ISS in a rigorously planned assembly sequence, an
assembly task is a choreographed event that requires task-
based training. The motions of the astronauts, the robots,
and the assembly pieces are not only thoroughly planned,
they are also exhaustively rehearsed. The vast majority of
training takes place in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at
the Johnson Space Center, and the environment in which the
EVA task is performed is controlled and well understood.
Extensive underwater EVA training is well accepted by the
crews as a prerequisite for safe EVA.
A maintenance or repair task during the operational phase
of ISS is much more likely to be a skill-based task than a
preplanned, rehearsed task. Although an astronaut could be
trained for a "standard" ORU changeout, he or she cannot be
trained in anticipation of all possible failures. Even if an
astronaut were trained for a specific maintenance scenario,
the training would not remain current indefinitely. Unlike
Shuttle EVA crew members, the ISS crew may have to use
procedures long after the training period, relying on memory.
Therefore, there will probably be some loss in proficiency,
especially for repairs late in a flight increment. Unsched-
uled repairs will necessarily be performed on structures that
are already assembled, when access to a damaged compo-
nent may be much more difficult than during assembly.
Therefore, astronauts performing EVA repair tasks will nec-
essarily rely heavily on their skill-based EVA training and
standardized tools.
On-orbit training could be an effective way to meet the
needs of astronauts who must rely on skill-based EVA train-
ing to perform unpredictable maintenance and repair tasks.
On-orbit training would be based on real-time communica-
tions between support personnel on the ground and the EVA
crew on orbit to walk them through and discuss potential
EVA tasks. Real-time communications would require high
bandwidth communications systems.
On-orbit training could also be accomplished asynchro-
nously, with the EVA crew relying on appropriate training
materials and equipment on board, rather than on the ground
(i.e., on-orbit CD-ROMs, videos, models and mock-ups)
augmented by suggestions from mission control. With task-
specific on-orbit training, the crew could be trained for a
specific takes) immediately before an EVA (a practice that
was used onboard Mir). On-orbit training would require
meticulous planning to ensure that all of the necessary equip-
ment and capabilities were aboard the ISS including:
adequate computer simulation; high bandwidth communica-
tions; and accurate physical or digital models that can be
reconfigured and updated as the ISS evolves.
Virtual-reality training, a comprehensive form of asyn-
chronous training, has proved to be a useful complement to
underwater training and has the potential to enable more
extensive on-orbit training protocols in the absence of the
neutral buoyancy facility. The training ratio for Shuttle
EVAs has historically been in the range of 10:1 (i.e., 10 hours
19
of neutral buoyancy training for each hour of actual EVA).
Training for maintenance EVAs after Assembly Complete is
expected to be in the range of 3:1 for neutral buoyancy train-
ing when augmented with virtual-reality training (Harbaugh
and Poulos, 1999~.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) should implement a plan to shift
from current training procedures to a combination of skill-
based training on the ground and task-specific training on
orbit. NASA should plan for and develop an extensive
on-orbit training program for rehearsing, simulating, and
creating optimal extravehicular activity performance and
timelines. The materials and equipment associated with
on-orbit asynchronous training should be integral elements
of the ground-training program so the crew can become
familiar with the CD-ROM and video approaches to training
before being required to use them on orbit.
PREBREATHE PROCEDURES
The purpose of prebreathe procedures is to decrease the
potential for decompression sickness (bends) incidents asso-
ciated with EVA. The current procedures are based on those
used to prepare for Space Shuttle EVAs. The Shuttle depres-
surizes the cabin pressure from 101.3 kPa to 70.3 kPa (14.7
to 10.2 psia) for 24 hours prior to a scheduled EVA, and the
EVA crew prebreathes pure oxygen for two hours prior to
Repressurizing the EMU to 29.6 kPa (4.3 psia). Unlike the
Shuttle, the entire ISS cannot be Repressurized. Therefore,
the EVA crew is placed in the airlock, which is depressur-
ized to 70.3 kPa (10.2 psia) overnight, the so-called "camp-
out" procedure. The crew then prebreathes pure oxygen for
four hours prior to Repressurizing the EMU to 29.6 kPa
(4.3 psia) at the start of the EVA. This entire procedure is
time consuming and severely restricts the EVA crew's
activities during the period.
NASA has been studying methods of shortening the
prebreathing period. For example, current test results sug-
gest that exercise during the pure oxygen prebreathe period
can reduce the prebreathing time without increasing inci-
dents of decompression sickness. The target prebreathe
period is one to two hours (Poulos, 1999~.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) should continue its ground-based
development program to reduce the risk of bends incidents
in extravehicluar activities (EVA). NASA should also develop
and fly instrumentation that will aid in the early detection of
the onset of bends incidents (e.g., an improved in-suit Doppler,
a system to acoustically measure the presence of gases in the
bloodstream). NASA should continue its efforts to reduce
the time required for prebreathing so that the procedure can
be accomplished during the period of several hours required
for other EVA preparation and checkout activities.
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20
SPACE SUIT UPGRADES
U.S. System
The EMU was designed and certified to meet the needs of
the Space Shuttle crew and has been used since 1983. For
the extended on-orbit operational life required for the ISS,
the robustness and durability of the EMU have been im-
proved by a comprehensive enhancement program con-
ducted during the l990s resulting in the recertification of the
EMU for use on the ISS. All indications are that the current
Shuttle/ISS EMU can meet the requirements of the ISS
operational phase (Poulos, 1999~. Nevertheless, although
the electronic components of the EMU have proven to be
reliable and durable, they were designed between 1979 and
the mid-1980s, and many of the electronic parts have become
obsolete and are no longer in production. Because vendors
no longer manufacture these parts, NASA's contractor has
had to search for the limited quantity of parts that remain in
distributor inventories and secure funding from NASA to
procure them to reduce near-term risks (Francis, 1999~. The
contractor has proposed redesigning the EMU electronics
using components based on current technology that would
be usable for both the Space Shuttle and the ISS until the end
of the program in 2020.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should continue to search for and acquire
electronic parts to support the current extravehicular mobility
unit (EMU) to reduce near-term risk and should redesign the
EMU electronic components using current technology to
satisfy the long-term EVA needs of the International Space
Station.
Logistics and Resupply
NASA and the EMU contractor continue to monitor EMU
supply and the demand created by the combined Space
Shuttle and ISS programs. The goal is to meet a probability
of sufficiency of 90 percent for the LSS and 80 percent for
the SSA. Because of projected shortages of the LSS, NASA
is considering procuring one additional PLSS and one addi-
tional secondary oxygen package. In addition, the PLSS
certification test hardware is being considered for upgrade
to full flight status by NASA (Crew and Thermal Systems
Division, Johnson Space Center).
The SSA has significantly shorter lead-time than the LSS
and therefore can be dealt with in a shorter turnaround time.
However, the SSA components must be available in a variety
of sizes to fit a variety of crew members.Therefore, an
inventory of SSA components will be required.
An analysis of LSS and SSA supply and demand reveals
that shortages could prevent the program from meeting the
goals of probability of sufficiency of 90 percent for the LSS
ENGINEERING CHALLENGES TO THE LONG-TERM OPERATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
and 80 percent for the SSA. The projected shortages, com-
bined with the need to support unplanned contingencies, are
likely to cause launch delays during ISS assembly, as well as
delays in EVAs during the ISS operational phase.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should procure additional Life Support
System hardware, and/or upgrade the Crew and Thermal
Systems Division's Life Support System certification hard-
ware and should procure additional hard upper torsos and
space suit assembly hardware and soft goods.
Russian System
Russian research and development is focused on improv-
ing suit performance (specifically mobility), decreasing the
payload weight required to replenish space suit consumables,
extending operating life, and using microprocessors to con-
trol and monitor space suit systems. Payload weight required
to replenish consumables might be reduced by regeneration
of carbon dioxide absorbers, removing heat without evapo-
rative water loss, decreasing oxygen leaks, and using
advanced oxygen supplies.
RELIABILITY OF THE SIMPLIFIED AID FOR
EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY RESCUE (SAFER)
The simplified aid for EVA rescue (SAFER) was designed
as the last line of defense for an EVA crew member who has
become detached from the ISS. Crew members are normally
attached to the ISS by a series of redundant tethers. The
SAFER, which is attached to the EMU LSS, is an emer-
gency return system that provides a fly-back capability in
the event that the tether system fails. SAFER uses a stored
gaseous nitrogen propulsion system that expels gas through
24 thrusters. SAFER operation is initiated by activating a
pyrotechnic valve to initiate the flow of nitrogen through a
regulator to the thruster nozzles. Gas flow is controlled to
provide a velocity of up to 3.05 m/s (10 fps).
The Space Shuttle has the capability of maneuvering to
retrieve a detached EVA crew member, but the ISS does not.
Because the ISS will be operating for more than a decade,
and because hundreds of EVAs will be conducted over its
lifetime, the SAFER must be absolutely reliable. Early
operational evaluations of the system, however, have
revealed failure modes that could compromise crew safety.
The SAFER is not a "single-fault-tolerant" system, and cer-
tain failures render it inoperative.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should ensure that the simplified aid for EVA
rescue (SAFER) is a completely reliable, single-fault-
tolerant system.
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EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY, ROBOTICS, AND SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGIES
ROBOTIC SYSTEMS
The complement of robotic devices on the ISS will
include the mobile servicing system, with the SSRMS (ISS
remote manipulator system) and the special purpose dexter-
ous manipulator (SPDM), the European robotics arm (ERA),
and the Japanese experiment module (JEM) robotics system.
The SSRMS and SPDM are the primary devices that will be
used for both assembly and maintenance of the station. The
ERA will be used during assembly of the Russian science
power platform; the Japanese robotics system will be used to
service external payloads on the JEM exposed facility.
The SSRMS is a large arm capable of maneuvering and
berthing major components of the ISS. It also provides a
platform from which an astronaut can perform EVA tasks or
be transported to other EVA work sites. The SSRMS can
also transport the SPDM, a dual-arm robot designed to per-
form ORU changeout. Approximately 200 (out of a total of
600) ORUs on the ISS have been designed to be compatible
with the SPDM. The three interfaces for handling ORUs
are: a microconical fixture; a microfixture; and an H-fixture.
The SPDM can also be used to perform a few tasks that do
not involve specialized fixtures (e.g., opening doors that
cover ORUs).
The primary mode of operation of the SSRMS and SPDM
is joint-controlled teleoperation. In this mode, an astronaut
controls each joint of each arm directly, issuing joint motion
commands based on what the astronaut observes by looking
at the arm. This is an effective but limited control technique
that requires great skill and extensive training.
NASA has a well developed plan for assembly of the ISS
based on the capabilities of the existing suite of robotic sys-
tems (SSRMS and SPDM) and the skills of the EVA astro-
naut. Although new robotic technologies could increase the
safety and/or productivity of the astronaut-robot team, new
technology will not be necessary for the completion of ISS
assembly. Therefore, the NASA team has adopted an
approach based largely on well proven, existing technology
that mitigates much of the risk and expense of developing
and applying new technology.
NASA's plan for using robotic devices for the mainte-
nance and servicing of the ISS after Assembly Complete is
not as well developed. In fact, a compelling case can be
made for incorporating new robotic technology in this phase
of the program. Many maintenance and repair tasks will be
fundamentally different from assembly tasks, and prepara-
tion for these tasks will require skill-based training rather
than task-specific training.
During ISS assembly, astronauts receive training and
practice robotic arm tasks just prior to each mission. There-
fore, the training and practice are recent and fresh when the
task is undertaken on orbit. After Assembly Complete, how-
ever, significant time may elapse between training on the
ground and the actual execution of robotic arm operations.
21
Thus, an astronaut's proficiency with the SSRMS/SPDM
after Assembly Complete is likely to deteriorate with time.
After ISS Assembly Complete, the crew may also be called
upon to perform tasks that they have not specifically
practiced.
Improvements to the systems used to control the SSRMS/
SPDM would be very beneficial after Assembly Complete,
and some technologies that could be incorporated on the
SSRMS/SPDM already exist. For example, "end point" con-
trol allows the astronaut to command the motion of the end
point of the manipulator rather than the individual joint
angles. This mode of operation (so-called "flying the end
point") could simplify control of the arms, which in turn
would reduce the requirements for training.
If the time lag between input commands and system
response does not cause errors (i.e., variations in signal travel
time and signal processing time that are dependent on the
communications path used in any specific instance) the
SSRMS could be commanded from the ground to accom-
plish portions of a task. For example, a ground-based opera-
tor could control the transit of a component from one point
on the ISS to another, leaving only the high-precision end
task to the intravehicular activity (IVA) astronaut operating
from inside the ISS. Routine maintenance tasks that do not
require the resourcefulness of an onboard astronaut could
also be transferred to ground operators.
NASA's current plans for operating the SSRMS/SPDM
are conservative but adequate for the assembly phase of the
ISS. However, improved operating modes would yield sub-
stantial benefits during the post Assembly Complete phase.
Current plans do not include use of the SPDM to support
EVAs or control of either the SPDM or the SSRMS from the
ground.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and its international partners should develop
a plan to incorporate improved control modes for the baseline
robotic systems on the International Space Station (i.e., the
space station remote manipulator system and the special pur-
pose dexterous manipulator) that would simplify their
operation and reduce astronaut training time (e.g., "flying
the end point". The plan should address cost and safety
considerations as well as teleoperation by ground-based
operators.
VISUAL INSPECTION AIDS
Additions to robotic systems on the ISS that could relieve
astronaut EVA requirements would also yield substantial
benefits after Assembly Complete. One of the most signifi-
cant robotic capabilities currently under development is an
enhanced visual inspection system. Current plans involve
using the SSRMS for payload checkout before an SSRMS or
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22
ENGINEERING CHALLENGES TO THE LONG-TERM OPERATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
EVA task, for closeout photography, and for problem reso-
lution. The SSRMS is a large, slow manipulator system that
will not provide camera coverage of all parts of the ISS post
Assembly Complete and cannot be operated without disturb-
ing the microgravity environment.
The impact of having limited visual inspection canabilitv
has already been demonstrated. During STS-88, the first
ISS assembly flight, repair of the undeployed antenna on the
Zarya module was very difficult because of the lack of visual
images. On this occasion, the EVA astronaut spent nearly
an hour of EVA time trying to describe the nature of the
problem to mission control. Nearly all of this time could
have been saved if he had been able to provide mission con-
trol with a visual image (Ross, 1999~. In this case, a camera
on the EMU would have sufficed because the astronaut was
already at the EVA work site. In other cases, when an astro-
naut is not at the EVA work site, an autonomous maneuver-
able camera could provide the critical visual inspection
capability.
A visual inspection system called AERCam has been
developed at the Johnson Space Center and has been flown
on the Space Shuttle. AERCam is a small, free-flying,
remotely controlled robotic platform that can carry a camera
(or two cameras when stereoscopic images are warranted)
and other sensors to any part of the ISS. AERCam can per-
form the following tasks:
· visual inspection
.
pre-EVA reconnaissance
· closeout video documentation
· supplemental video coverage for other robotic
operations
positioning of cameras and lights for EVA crew
nonvisual sensing (e.g., presence of ammonia, infra-
red camera, measurement of structural vibration)
The AERCam can be operated easily by an IVA astronaut
and can be deployed without disturbing the microgravity
environment of the ISS. AERCam has already proven its
practicality. On the STS-87 mission, AERCam was oper-
ated in a teleoperation mode in close proximity to the Space
Shuttle orbiter and within the operator's line of sight. Cur-
rent procedures for inspecting the station exterior to assess
damage cause major disruptions to the ISS microgravity
environment. Although the AERCam system could satisfy
the needs of the ISS, it is not currently on the manifest for
the ISS.
Recommendation. Development and test of the AERCam
system should be continued so that it can be included in the
baseline International Space Station (ISS) equipment mani-
fest for support of extravehicular activities.
ADVANCED ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGIES
In addition to improvements in visual inspection capa-
bilities, improvements could be made in robotic systems to
optimize the capabilities of the human-robot teams aboard
the ISS and on the ground. Significant progress in robotics
research promises to enhance the performance of robotic ser-
vicing systems through improved teleoperation modes and
supervised-autonomous modes of operation for all of the
planned or proposed robotic systems for the ISS.
Two research and development programs, the Ranger
Project and the Robonaut Project being developed by NASA
Johnson Space Center, are sufficiently well developed and
have a high enough probability of yielding significant
improvements to the operation of the ISS post Assembly
Complete to warrant serious consideration. Both programs
are focused on enhancing robotic servicer technologies.
The focus of the Ranger Project is on advanced
telepresence control concepts. The goal is to develop tech-
niques that will permit a remote human user (either IVA or
on the ground) to operate the system easily to perform com-
plex tasks. The current system, a mobile servicer with a
main body and four arms, is controlled using stereo video
displays, simulated graphics, dual three-axis hand control-
lers, and dual six-axis hand trackers. A robotic system with
Ranger's capabilities could access objects in the tight con-
fines of the assembled ISS structure that would not be acces-
sible with the robotic systems now planned for the ISS (i.e.,
the SSRMS and SPDM). A Ranger vehicle would also be
able to service the ISS without disturbing the microgravity
environment.
The utility and value of the Ranger vehicle has already
been demonstrated in tests at the Neutral Buoyancy Labora-
tory in which the vehicle functioned as an aid to astronauts
performing ORU changeouts. The potential for incorpora-
tion of any of these capabilities into the ISS program is
remote, however, until they have been demonstrated in flight.
The Ranger vehicle is fully funded for a flight test demon-
stration (outside of the ISS program) but has not yet been
manifested for a flight on the Shuttle.
A second robotic servicer program with great potential
for the ISS is the Robonaut Project also being developed at
the NASA Johnson Space Center. The Robonaut is an
anthropomorphic robotic servicer comprised of two seven-
degree-of-freedom manipulators attached to a torso with a
stereo vision head. The robot is designed to match a suited
EVA crew member in both size and dexterity. Because of its
small size, the robot has a variety of mounting and mobility
options. A unique aspect of the Robonaut is that it has a
single end effecter that can use the same tools and equip-
ment interfaces as an EVA crew member. This end effecter
has four fingers and an opposing thumb and resembles a
human hand.
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EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY, ROBOTICS, AND SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGIES
23
The Robonaut concept is different from all other servicers NASA intends the ISS to be "an important test bed for
that use multiple changeout tools (such as the Ranger). With solar system exploration" (Nicogossian, 1999~. Therefore,
the Robonaut servicer, EVA tasks currently designated "for the development of robotic technologies for servicing in
EVA crew members only," including tasks within tight cor- space will be important for more than the ISS. Future HEDS
riders and tasks that require simultaneous dual-arm opera- (Human Exploration and Development of Space) initiatives,
lion, could be performed robotically. The Robonaut could and solar system exploration missions, will also benefit from
be operated either by an IVA crew member or, potentially, remotely operated robotic systems that can perform external
from the ground. inspections, servicing, maintenance, and repair. For un
Both the Ranger and the Robonaut technologies are avail- manned missions, robotic servicing will be the only option.
able and could significantly improve the efficiency and
safety of both EVA and IVA tasks. However, neither is
currently planned to be incorporated or tested on the ISS.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should continue to explore advanced robotic
technologies that have the potential to increase the efficiency
of human-robot teams onboard the Internationaol Space
Station. This should include space flight testing of the
Ranger vehicle as a proof of concept.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should assess the potential improvements in
extravehicular activities from the introduction of new robotic
technology into human-robot systems. This assessment
should include a comparison of the cost for development and
implementation and the potential cost savings and risk
reduction associated with the use of these systems.
EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY AND ROBOTICS
The current ISS robotic teleoperators require a significant
investment of crew time for extensive training in operations
that require great skill and attention to detail. The current
ISS robotics are based on the successful history of the Space
Shuttle remote manipulator system and do not represent a
significant advancement in technology.
The ISS will provide a unique opportunity to establish
synergistic activities by suited crew members and robotic
systems. Highly mobile, reduced size and weight space suits
and autonomous robotic systems with a high degree of
dexterity are critical areas of research and development for
which the ISS could serve as an engineering test bed. For
example, a small HUT space suit, which is being considered
for use on the ISS after Assembly Complete, could be used
as a test bed for advanced technologies (i.e., automatic ther
mal control, advanced LSS, performance and physiological
measures, actively controlled materials and structures, and
biological technologies). In addition, two new prototype
space suits have been delivered to NASA that could to be
evaluated with robotic assistants (Hatfield et al., 1999~.
Recommendation. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration should use the International Space Station
(ISS) as a technology test bed for advanced extravehicular
activity (EVA) systems, including robotic systems to sup-
port long-term ISS operations and future space missions.
Rather than introducing only incremental changes, revolu-
tionary approaches should be pursued to developing new
materials, achieving greater mobility, and incorporating new
technologies for both EVA suits and robotics systems in sup-
port of future exploration initiatives.
REFERENCES
Francis, E. 1999. Space Suit and Life Support System Technology. Presen-
tation by E. Francis, Vice President, Programs, Hamilton Standard Space
Systems International, to the Committee on the Engineering Challenges
to the Long-Term Operation of the International Space Station,
Hamilton Standard Space Systems International, Windsor Locks,
Connecticut, April 9, 1999.
Harbaugh, G., and S. Poulos. 1999. EVA Status. Presentation by G.
Harbaugh, Manager, EVA Projects Office, and S. Poulos, Deputy Man-
ager, EVA Project Office, to D. Newman, member of the Committee on
the Engineering Challenges to the Long-Term Operation of the Inter-
national Space Station, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas,
February 21, 1999.
Hatfield, C.A., E. Taylor, and P. Callen. 1999. Advanced Robotic Capabili-
ties for ISS. Presentation by C.A. Hatfield, Mission Integration Office,
International Space Station Program, to the Committee on the Engineer-
ing Challenges to the Long-Term Operation of the International Space
Station, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, March 25, 1999.
Nicogossian, A.E. 1999. Conducting Research on an Orbiting Platform.
Presentation by A.E. Nicogossian, Associate Administrator for Life and
Microgravity Sciences and Applications, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration. American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1999 Annual Meeting and Science Innovation Exposition,
Anaheim, California, January 23, 1999.
Poulos, S. 1999. EVA Requirements. Presentation by S. Poulos, Deputy
Manager, EVA Project Office, to the Committee on the Engineering
Challenges to the Long-Term Operation of the International Space
Station, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, March 25, 1999.
Ross, J. 1999. EVA Astronaut Experience. Presentation by J. Ross, Astro-
naut Office, to the Committee on the Engineering Challenges to the
Long-Term Operation of the International Space Station, NASA
Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, March 24, 1999.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
eva crew
