The funding situation for postdocs at medical schools has several distinctive features. Many postdocs who plan careers in biomedical research work in medical schools and most are paid from NIH research grants. Clinicians with medical degrees, however, may also do “postdoctoral ” research for a year or more without intending a traditional research career. Clinicians who take time away from the hospital continue to be paid a house-staff salary, which is typically more than twice that of most postdocs.

Private firms value postdocs for their up-to-date training and technical skills. Industrial postdoc positions usually differ from academic ones in offering higher salaries, stricter time limits (three years is common), fewer teaching opportunities, and an environment geared toward creating marketable and profitable products.

Practical advantages may include standardized employee benefits, access to well-equipped labs and technology, exposure to industrial culture, teamwork, and management styles, all of which can differ greatly from university life. Depending on the company and research environment, drawbacks may include the chance of being transferred from one's chosen project, limited ability to take ownership of a project, a focus on marketable results, and restrictions on information exchange for proprietary reasons. Restrictions on the use and publication of results may in some cases hinder a postdoc from moving back into academia. Many firms do not hire their own postdocs as staff scientists, or hire only those with specific technical skills.

Government postdoc positions, particularly those in large national labs, may offer opportunities not available in a university or industry setting. Some national facilities are unique in the scope of their research, the complexity of their equipment and research facilities, and the size of their research groups.

A national facility may provide a more interdisciplinary setting than a university, as well as more interaction with other divisions and researchers. Some laboratory groups are run collaboratively by staff and postdocs, who jointly make decisions on hiring and other strategies. It is possible for a postdoc to be the only person working on a project, but a team setting is more common.

Like private firms, national facilities afford few teaching or mentoring experiences and may allow a postdoc less flexibility than a university in determining the direction of research. At most national settings, applicants are expected to submit proposals that fit closely with the adviser's ongoing work. Exceptions occur for postdocs who bring their own funding, such as National Research Council (NRC) research associates.

Postdocs at national facilities are usually temporary employees, receiving salaries at the high end of the postdoctoral scale. Terms of two to three years are normal. National labs used to offer postdocs permanent research positions, but this may be less common in times of hiring restraints (some agencies, such as NASA, have imposed multi-year hiring freezes). Some postdocs at government

Front Matter (R1-R26)

Executive Summary (1-3)

Postdoctoral Scholars in US Institutions (4-20)

Features of the Postdoctoral Experience (21-41)

Rights, Opportunities, and Responsibilities of the Postdoc (42-56)

The Postdoc and the Adviser (57-69)

The Postdoc and the Institution (70-87)

The Postdoc and the Funding Organization (88-94)

The Postdoc and the Disciplinary Societies (95-96)

Principles, Action Points, and Recommendations for Enhancing the Postdoctoral Experience (97-109)

Bibliography (110-112)

Appendix A: Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy: Member and Staff Biographical Information (113-121)

Appendix B: Analysis of Quantitative Data on Postdocs (122-137)

Appendix C: Results of Survey of Organizations with Postdoctoral Scholars (138-158)

Appendix D: Summary of Workshop on Enhancing the Postdoctoral Experience (159-174)

Appendix E: Summary of Results from Institutional Focus Groups (175-184)