INDEX
A
Aardvark (Oryceteropus afer), 151
Acacias (Acacia spp.), 161, 374
Acadia National Park (Maine), 183
Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis), 243
Afforestation, 60
Africa
biogeographic setting, 249
conservation approaches, 248–259
deforestation projections, 64–65
dry tropical regions, 130
endemism centers, 249–252
extinction rates, 64–65
fragility and vulnerability of ecosystems, 258
Great Lakes, 252
heathland shrubs, 251
monitoring of ecosystems, 257–259
protected areas, 11, 254–257, 259
rain forest replacement by savannas, 56
Sahelian area, 177
Serengeti, 176
species diversity, 31, 64–65, 249–252
see also East Africa;
West Africa;
and specific countries
African eggplants (Solanum spp.), 244
African invader (ant), 251
African tilapia (Tilapia spp.), 347
African Wildlife Foundation, 147
Afrotropical realm, 249–251, 254
Agency for International Development, U.S.
conservation strategy, 16, 410, 414, 416
developmental assistance in conservation, 405, 413–414
Panama natural resources project, 415
Agouti (Dasyprocta spp.), 356, 375
Agriculture
conversions of grasslands, 176–177, 179
desert-farming module, 346–351
exchange economy growth, 206–210
intensification of productivity, 394, 406
slash-and-burn, 141, 151, 327–328, 371, 413
tropical forest plant contribution, 107
see also Crops;
Cultivation
Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria), 84
Agroecology, 134, 136, 207, 208, 346–352, 357–358, 361–369
Agroforestry, 373–374, 395–396, 406
Alder (Alnus spp.), 171
Algae, red (Digenea simplex), 86
Allelic diversity, see Genetic diversity
Allelochemicals, 111
Alligators (Alligator spp.), 201, 203, 264, 266
Alpacas (Lama pacos), 100
Altieri, Miguel A., 361–370
Amazonia
Brazilian, 29, 114, 120, 124, 126–127, 138–142, 329, 406
conservation of tropical forests, 32, 406
deep ecology, 8
deforestation projections, 120
Ecuadorian, 79
history, 124–125
human disturbances, 327–328
Indians, see Amerindians
natural disturbances, 326–327
natural pesticides, 111
new crops, 109–110
projected species losses, 11, 31–32
restoration of degraded lands, 326–332
swamps, 110
valuation of plants, 106
Amberjack (Seriola dumerili), 45
American kestrel (Falco sparverius), 280
Amerindians
Brazilian Amazonia, 114, 138–143
deforestation effects, 114, 142–143
Gavioes, 142
Kutchin, 279
management of forest resources, 79–80, 114, 138–143
productivity, 142
Ramkokamekra Canela, 142
Yanomami, 138–142
see also specific Indian groups
Ammonites, longevity, 7–8
Amphibians, 5, 131, 167, 170, 266;
see also specific species
Andes mountains
agroecological practices, 367
conservation value, 133
deforestation, 120
habitat destruction, 229
uplifts, 124–125
Andropogon spp. (grasses), 186, 314
Angkor rain forest, 9
Angola
birds, 252
Giant Sable Integral Nature Reserve, 254
lowland forests, 254–255
Mount Moco, 252
primates, 149–150
Animals, 81, 290, 296, 313, 356–357;
see also Birds;
Fishes;
Insects;
Mammals;
Primates;
Reptiles;
Vertebrates;
and specific species
Antarctica, 39
Antelope, pronghorn (Antilocarpa americana), 71
Ants, 6, 7, 9, 111, 132, 251, 329, 330, 357;
see also specific species
Aquatic food webs, 40–41
Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), 265, 286, 290
Argentina, 176;
see also South America
Armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), 81, 297
Arrow root (Maranta arundinacea), 374
Arthropods, pharmacologic interest, 93, 94
Artichoke (Cynara scolymus), 85, 107
Aru, 12
Asia
agricultural productivity intensification, 394–395
closed tropical forest status, 393–394
conservation policies, 396–398
deforestation rates, 64–65, 120, 393
development agencies, 398
extinction rates, 64–65
protected forests, 11
solutions to deforestation, 394–396
wildlands of concern, 438–439
see also Southeast Asia;
and specific countries
Asimov, Isaac, 129
Aspen (Populus spp.), 167
Auk, Great (Penguinus impennis), 45
Australia
avian reintroductions, 281
biological invasions, 163, 182
dry tropical regions, 130
grasslands, 176
mapping vegetation, 228
Queensland, 228
Southwest, 269
woody plant diversity, 159
Austria, 75
Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis), 146, 150, 264
Avocado (Persea americana), 111
Azalea, yellow (Rhododendron molle), 88
Azores, 161
see also Amerindians
B
Babassú palm (Orbignya spp.), 113
Bacabá (Oenocarpus bacaba), 113
Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), 201, 222, 264–265, 280–282
Banana poka (Passiflora mollissima), 187
Barberry (Berberis vulgaris), 84
Barley, cross-breeding, 110
Bay checkerspot (Euphydryas editha bayensis) butterflies, 22
see also specific species
Bearded pigs (Sus barbatus), 356
Beech (Fagus sylvatica), 451
see also specific species
Belding’s Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis beldingi), 319, 323
Belladonna (Atropa belladonna), 84
Bering Sea, 46
Betel-nut palm (Areca catechu), 84
Beza-Mahafaly project, 152
Biodiversity
aquatic, 171–172
benefits of, 21, 73, 81–82, 103, 296;
see also Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived
causes and consequences of losses, 14, 21–26, 59, 63, 72–73, 131, 197, 231, 263–264, 280–281, 446;
see also Deforestation;
Habitats destruction
Christian view, 481–485
classification, see Taxonomy
communicating the importance of, 82, 465–469
costs of research, 102
crises in geologic past, 51–57;
see also Extinctions
current state, 3–18
in dance, song, story, and poetry, 470–480
diversification, 160, 209–210, 275
economic considerations, 14–16, 79–82, 114–115, 206–210, 212–213, 415, 441, 443;
see also Resource economics
endemic, see Endemism
estimating losses, 10–14, 22, 26, 44, 58–69
ethical considerations, 16, 80–81
extinction, see Extinction;
Extinction rates
formation, 209
gene pool reductions, 7, 11–12, 22, 32, 81
global role, 3, 10–12, 21–35, 48, 409
human dependence, 3, 21, 58, 81–82, 99
industrial uses, 112
information management, 231–238
interdependence among species, 203, 275
log factor, 169–171
medicinal uses, see Drugs and pharmaceuticals;
Medicine;
Traditional medicine
Mediterranean-climate region, 160–162
megadiversity countries, 145, 152–153
monitoring, 227–230, 231–239, 257–259
patterns, 422–423
prevention of losses, 13–17, 22, 25–26;
see also Conservation;
Preservation
productivity correlation, 42, 44
research goals, needs, and challenges, 14, 38–40, 46
serendipity and exploration, 98–105
species numbers and richness, 3–7, 14, 42, 64–65, 68, 131, 200, 232
structural dynamics, 160, 169–171
taxonomy, see Taxonomy
tropical compared to temperate regions, 158–160
urban area, 71–76
valuation, 47, 98–105, 193–222;
see also Resource economics
Vavilovian centers, 242–243
see also Genetic diversity
Biogeography
island, 6, 11, 12–13, 29–32, 42, 100, 269–270, 275
shallow-time data use in, 52
Biological engineering, 377–389
Biomass production, 23, 61, 359, 377–386
BioSciences Information Service (BIOSIS), 246
Bird’s beak, salt marsh (Cordylanthus maritimus), 317, 322
Birds
African, 251–252
as analogs of filter feeders, 39
artificial insemination, 281, 303
breeding success, 186, 280–282
diurnal raptors, 280–282
diversity, 5, 9, 39, 131, 150, 250, 266
ecology, 22
extinction, 11, 12, 45, 63, 66, 71, 74, 151, 181, 183, 279–288, 317–319
forest habitats, 170
grassland species, 178
ground-nesting, 186
habitat size, 178
human-imprinted, 281
Madagascar, 150
North American, overwintering, 22, 135
reintroductions, 282–284
resilience of species, 66
rookeries, offshore, 75
Santa Rosa National Park species, 131
see also specific species
Birthwort (Corydalis ambigua), 89
Bishop’s weed (Ammi majus), 90
Bison (Bison spp.), 7, 71, 264, 282
Black-footed cat (Felis nigripes), 300
Black Forest (Federal Republic of Germany), 75
Black mustard (Brassica nigra), 84
Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), 88, 313
Bluestem, big (Andropogon gerardi), 314
Blue whale (Sibbaldus musculus), 213
Boars, wild (Sus scrofa), 188
Boggle unit of ignorance, 204–205
Botanical gardens
conservation methods, 271–273
genetic consequences of conservation, 273–275
see also specific botanical gardens and museums
Botanochemicals, 112
Brady, Nyle C., 409–418
Brazil
Acre State rubber tappers, 139
Atlantic coastal forest, 10, 29–30, 72, 145, 147–149
colonization program, 143
conservation programs, 405–406
extinction of birds, 13
new crops, 111–113
Para State, 142
tropical forest area, 147–148
Tucurui Dam construction, 15
Brazil nuts, 142
Brazilian Shield, 125
Brome grass (Bromus tectorum), 162
Bronx Zoo (New York City), 282
Brookfield Zoo (Chicago), 147
Broom, Scotch (Cytisus scoparius), 89
Brown, Lester R., 446–449
Buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa), 109–110, 114
Burley, F.William, 227–230; 403–408
Burning
effects on biodiversity, 80, 177–178
prescribed, 173
see also Fires
Butterflies, 22, 72, 75, 131, 238;
see also specific species
C
Caa-hê-hê (Stevia rebaudiana), 89
Caboclos (forest-dwellers), 139
Cacti, 100
Cade, Tom J., 279–288
Caffeine, as a natural insecticide, 112
Cairns, John, Jr., 333–343
Calabar beans (Physostigma benenosum), 87, 111
California
barley, 110
Berkeley, 75
exotic species invasion, 161, 163
floristic diversity, 159, 161, 163–164
grasslands, 161
loss of diversity, 71, 73, 75, 161
parks and reserves, 161
San Francisco Bay Area, 71, 73, 75
wetlands restoration, 317–325
California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), 45, 201, 215, 222, 280, 282, 284, 288
California least tern (Sterna albifrons browni), 317, 322, 323
Calvaria major (tree), 357
Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), 85
Cancer treatment, 85–90, 92, 94;
see also Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived
Cape Floristic Kingdom (Africa), 251
Captive breeding, see Preservation;
Zoological parks;
and specific zoos and parks
Carabid beetle (Agra arrow), 128
see also specific islands
Carp, Chinese, 347
Caryodaphnopsis theobromifolia (tree), 111
Cassava (Manihot spp.), cross-breeding, 110
Cat, black-footed (Felis nigripes), 300
Catastrophes, natural, 65, 67, 169
Catfish, North American (Ictalurus spp.), 347
Ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), 171
Cedar (Thuia spp.), 456
Central African Republic, 148–150
Central America
deep ecology, 79
deforestation rates, 120
new crops, 109
rain forest species diversity, 9
see also Latin America;
and specific countries
Cerrado, 140
Challinor, David, 493–496
Channel Islands National Park (California), 182–183
Chaparral, inland, 75
Chargaff, Erwin, 216
Charismatic megavertebrates, 145, 258, 293
Cheetahs (Acinoynx jubatus), 286
Chestnut, American, 215
Chestnut, horse (Aesculus hippocastanum), 84
Chimpanzees (Pan spp.), 145–146, 264;
see also specific species
China, see People’s Republic of China
Chinampas (kitchen gardens), 336
Chinese carp, 347
Chinese maiden hair tree (Ginko biloba), 66–67
Chinese snake gourd (Trichosanthes kirilowii), 90
Chipmunks, 71
Chmielewski, Tadeusz, 101
Choco forest (Colombia), threat to, 31
Chordates, pharmaceutical interest, 93, 94
Cichlidae, 252
Cinnamon, yellow (Ocotea glaziovii), 86
Cinquefoil (Potentilla fragarioides), 85
Citrus (Citrus spp.), 86, 89, 244
Classification systems
biogeographic, 229
biotic, in Africa, 253–254
habitat, 42–43
Holdridge Life Zone, 61
mapping centers of endemism, 253–254
Climate
ecological responses, 451–459
effects, 24, 25, 32, 56, 65, 73, 209, 451–459
human-induced, 22
Pleistocene epoch, 52
projected, 451–452
rainfall correlated with tree species richness, 62
species range shift in response, 453
see also Greenhouse effect
Club of Earth, 448–449
Coastal zones
characteristics and extent, 37, 42
classification, 42–43
ecological diversity, 36–49
forests, 37
marshlands, 75
productivity, 37
research needs, 48–49
see also Marine environments
Cobb, John B., Jr., 481–485
Coca (Erythroxylum coca), 85
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao), 89
Coiba (Panama), 12
Cold water spirit, 476–480
Coleoptera, see Beetles
Coles (Brassica spp.), 244
Colombia
Choco forest, 31
primates, 149–150
Commodities, see Crops;
Drugs and pharmaceuticals;
Fats;
Oils
Comoros Islands, 150
Compass plant (Silphium laciniatum), 314
Competition, interspecies, 184, 275;
see also Exotic species
Condor, California (Gymnogyps californianus), 45, 201, 215, 222, 280, 282, 284, 288
Coneflower, yellow (Ratibida pinnata), 314
Congo, closed tropical forest area, 148
Conservation
acquisition of land, 135
aesthetic reasons, 73
African examples, 248–259
costs, 267
debt forgiveness/economic assistance, 15
economic and political considerations, 74, 80, 121, 193–199, 213–214, 429–432
economic development, 14–16;
see also Resource economics
environmental impact analysis, 237
ethnobotanist role, 114
European policies, 75
focus, 106
forest, 396–398;
see also Reforestation
funding, 45, 145, 258, 406–407, 425, 441–442
impediments, 14, 68, 73, 197–198, 424–426
in situ, 105, 246, 253, 269, 293, 361–368;
see also Ecological Reserves;
Preserves
land administration, 236
Latin American perspectives, 428–436
major areas worldwide, 411
motivation, 467–469
movements and organizations, 74, 79–82
planning for climate change, 457–459
prioritization, 44–49, 80, 227–230, 236, 248–249, 269, 416–417
size of populations and ecosystems, 228–229, 271, 412
stewardship, 172–173, 231, 236
strategies, 68, 82, 149, 169, 171, 253, 263–268, 270–273, 289–294, 396–398, 411–412, 434–436
systematic, 411–412
Third World responsibility-sharing with developed nations, 434–436
utilitarian reasons, 80–82, 198
wetlands, 256
worthiness of species/habitats, 131–134, 221, 269
see also Ex situ conservation;
Preservation
Conservation Data Centers, 229, 414
Contingent valuation, 201, 218–220, 222
Contour hedgerows, 387–389
Conway, William, 263–268
Cook Islands, biological invasions, 185
Coral reefs
exploration, 5
productivity, 44
Scleractinia dominance, 55
see also Deep sea;
Marine environments
Cordgrass (Spartina foliosa), 320, 323
see also Maize;
Teosinte
Costa Rica, 131, 158–159, 338, 346, 357, 415
Cotton (Gossypium spp.), 86
Cotton-top tamarin (Sageunus oedipus), 146, 296
Cougars (Felis concolor), 71
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), 243
Coyotes (Canis latrans), 132
Crab, horseshoe (Limulus spp.), 40
Cranes, 222, 255–256, 264, 266, 285, 286;
see also specific species
Crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis), 280
Creosote bush (Larrea divaricata), 87
Cretaceous-Tertiary Period, 52, 54–55, 121
Crocus (Colchicum autumnale), 85
Crops
Amerindian, 138
cross-breeding, 101–102, 110–111, 241, 244, 274
disease resistance, 110, 242, 361
fuelwood, 395
genetic diversity, 15, 81, 208
genetic resource activities, 242
landraces, 241–243, 246, 276, 362, 365
loss of potential species, 81, 365
new, 107–110
origins, 15, 81, 99–100, 107–108, 110–111, 132, 207, 242–244, 273–274, 362–363
resources for genetic conservation, 244–245
tree, 394–395
Vavilovian centers, 242–243
Cross-breeding
characteristics controlled, 241
crops, 101–102, 110–111, 241, 244, 274
embryo rescue techniques, 244
primary, secondary, and tertiary gene pools, 244
Cryptococcus (Cryptococcus spp.), role and value, 423
Cryopreservation
seed, 272
semen, 303–304
Cubé root (Lonchocarpus nicou), 88
Cultivation
acid latosols, 395
alley-cropping, 395
effects on oceanic islands, 181
habitat conversion, 75
medicinal plants, 95
small-scale, 29
strip-cropping, 363
Curare (Chondrodendron tomentosum), 90, 111
Curcurbits, 244
Curtis, John, 312
Cushion plants, 100
Cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.), 456
D
Daisy (Chrysanthemum cinerarialfolium), 111
Darwin, Charles, 10
Deep ecology movement, 79–82
see also Coral reefs;
Marine environments
see also specific species
Deforestation
alternatives, 370–375
climatic effects, 32
closed and open forests, 60–61
costs to remedy, 16
effects generally, 24, 103, 120–121
effects on Amerindians, 114, 142–143
extinctions, 31, 60, 62–64, 120, 121
rates, 8, 11, 29, 60–65, 119–122, 124, 148, 393–394
remote-sensing surveys, 29
see also Conservation;
Forests;
Rain forests;
Reforestation;
Temperate forests;
and specific forests
Desert-farming module, 346–351
Desmodium ovalifolium (vine), 374
Developing countries, see Third World
Development assistance, see Agency for International Development;
World Bank
Diamond, Jared, 12
Diego Garcia Island, 183
Diversification, see under Biodiversity
DNA
flux theory, 245
structure in house mouse, 7
Dodo (Raphus cuculatus), 357
Doolittle, Ford, 487
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga spp.), 75, 167–168, 453
Dresser, Betsy L., 296–307
Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived
abortifacient, 90
adrenergic blocker, 90
amebicides, 86
analeptic, 88
anti-gout, 85
antiarrhythmic, 88
anticholinesterase, 87
antidepressant, 86
antidysentery, 84
antiemetic, 89
antifungal, 89
antihepatotoxic, 89
antiinflammatory, 84–85
antimalarial, 88
antiparkinsonism, 86
antipyretics, 85–88
antitumor, 85–87, 89–90, 92, 94
antitussive, 84–88
aphrodisiac, 90
astringent, 86
bronchoconstrictor, 89
bronchodilator, 87–88
chemical information, 93–94
choleretic, 85
cholinesterase inhibitors, 86
contraceptive, 86
costs of development, 83, 91, 95
dental plaque inhibitor, 89
detoxicant, 87
diuretic, 89
emetics, 86
escharotic, 88
expectorant, 88
folkloric claims, 84–90, 93, 95
herbal, 91–92
importance globally, 83–92, 97
ocular tension reducer, 89
parasympathomimetic, 88
pharmacological information, 93–94
screening, 92–95
sedative, 88–90
sympathomimetic, 86
testing on animals, 81
vasodilator, 89
Dumoga Bone National Park (Indonesia), 397, 405, 440
Dushen (wood grass product), 359, 379–386
E
Eagle owl (Bubo bubo), 282
Eagles, 201, 222, 264–265, 280–282;
see also specific species
Earth as a living organism, 486–489
Earth First! movement, 79
see also Africa;
and specific countries
Echinoderms, 8;
see also Marine environments
Eckholm, Erik, 81
Ecological reserves
Asian region, 396
butterfly survival, 72
climate change effects, 451–459
edge effects, 269
effectiveness, 174
management, 457–459
most favorable sites, 269
protection strategies, 120–121
size factor in success, 313, 451
studies, 339–340
see also specific reserves
Ecological restoration, see Restoration of species
Ecology, deep, 79–82
Economics, see Biodiversity, economic considerations;
Global exchange economy;
Resource economics
Ecosystems
alteration, 186–187
gnotobiotic, 340–341
restoration, see Restoration of species
Ecuador
closed tropical forest area, 148
deep ecology, 79
new crops, 109
timber trees, 111
urban areas, 79
woody plant diversity, 159
Eggplants, African (Solanum spp.), 244
Ehrenfeld, David, 212–216
Ehrlich, Paul R., 21–27
Elephant birds (Aepyornis spp.), 151
Embryo transfer, 298–302, 264, 266, 298–302
Endangered species
data base, 234
loss of internal diversity, 7
number, 22
Endangered Species Act, 74, 289
Endemism
African centers, 249–252
Brazilian Atlantic coastal forests, 72
exotic species and, 68, 160, 162–163, 181–188
Mediterranean-climate regions, 160–163
North American grasslands, 179
primates, 148–150
South American tropical forests, 29–31, 148–149
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni)., 24, 455, 456
England, see Great Britain
Equatorial Guinea, 149–150
Ethics
conservation, 16, 80–81, 200–205, 212–216, 217–223, 294
economic valuation of biodiversity, 217–218
Ethnobotany, 95, 114, 358, 363–367
Europe, see specific countries
Everglades National Park (Florida), 182–183, 203
Evolution
description of processes, 32–33
extinction effects, 32–34, 51, 54–55
geographic speciation, 6
geologic record, 51–57
Homo sapiens, 55
islands, 182
rates, 182
successional, 125
see also specific geological periods
Ex situ conservation
animals, 289–304
application of techniques and species, 264–265, 271–273
costs, 267
crop genetic resources, 246
genetic consequences, 273–275
high technology, 289–294
hybridization, 274
value, 312
see also Botanical gardens;
Conservation;
Restoration of species;
Zoological parks;
and specific botanical gardens and
zoological parks
Exotic species
development of reproductive technology, 305
establishment and maintenance, 73
importance, 65–67
invasion by South African fynbos, 160
invasion of high-endemic areas, 68, 160, 162–163, 181–188
invasion of grasslands, 178
invasion of islands, 181–188
naturalized, in California, 161
Extinction
biological proneness, 33, 74–75
causes, 3, 28, 29, 54, 59–60, 134, 181, 184, 196, 273, 454
climate changes, 209
deforestation-induced, 8, 60, 62–64, 181
disease factor, 184
evolutionary consequences, 32–34, 51, 54–55
habitat destruction, 3, 54, 59, 184
human population expansion, 59
geologic records, 26, 33, 51–57
grazing-induced, 184
islands, 181
Madagascar, 151
mass, 6, 8, 12, 26, 28, 33, 51–57, 63, 68, 134, 136
plants, 11, 12, 29, 33, 52, 63
predator factor, 66, 72, 184, 186
probability calculations, 7–8
rates, see Extinction rates
recovery time, 54
research priorities, 13, 52, 54, 57
secondary events, 74
spasms, 28, 30, 32, 33, 52–53, 467
stepwise, 52
technological amelioration, 26
urban area, 71
Extinction rates
animals, 29–30
area-species relationship, 6, 11, 12, 63
current, 10, 13, 28, 29, 59, 63
deforestation-related, 8, 62–65
estimation approaches, 10, 13, 29–32, 54, 59–60, 62–65
fossil lineages, 8, 13, 51, 54
future, 11, 30–32, 59–60, 63, 127, 289
islands, 181
Latin America, 64–65
plants, 11, 12, 29, 33, 52, 63
phytogeographical relationship, 62
shallow-time, 56
tropical forests, 10–13, 58–69, 121
Z factor, 63
F
Faba bean (Vicia faba), 243
Falcons, peregrine (Falco peregrinus), 264, 280–288, 293
Fallow deer (Cervinae dama), 346
Famine, from climate change, 24, 25
Farnsworth, Norman R., 83–97
Faroe Islands, 163
Fats, vegetable, industry uses and new sources, 112–113
Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, 147
Ferrets, black-footed (Mustela nigripes), 22, 290, 293
Fescue, Arizona (Fescue montana arizonica), 335
Fevillea spp. (vine), 113
see also specific field stations
Fir, Douglas (Pseudotsuga spp.), 75, 167–168, 453
Fire tree (Myrica faya), 186
Fires
Andropogon grasses, 186
forest clearance, 67, 130, 134
forest recovery, 326–327
Volkswagen ranch, 141
see also Burning
Fish berry (Anamirta cocculus), 88
Fishes
African, 252
anadromous, 171
diversity, 40–41, 71, 171–172, 222, 266
exotic species in California, 162
exploitation, 24
extinction rates, 7–8
habitat requirements, 22
restoration, 222, 286, 346–347
value, 222
see also specific species
Flagship species, 103, 145, 149
Flora, see Flowering plants;
Plants
Flowering plants
Cenozoic, longevity, 8
cultivation for food, 121
determinants of genetic patterns, 271
number of genes, 7
see also Crops;
Plants
Food and Agriculture Organization, 398, 404
Food
see also Crops;
Plants, edible
resources, 23
Foreign Assistance Act, conservation amendments, 15–16
Forest-dwellers (caboclos), 139
Forests
acidification, 75
apete (patches), 140
boreal, 157
closed, 60–61
development assistance, 404–406
fallow, 61
formation, 125
gallery, 140
gardening, 373–374
mature, 66
monsoon, 31
montane, 31
open, 60–61
recovery, 60
remnant primeval, 169
research needs, 68
resilience, 61
secondary, 60–64, 66, 68, 141, 167;
see also Temperate forests
types, 61–62
see also Deforestation;
Rain forests;
Temperate forests;
Tropical dry forests;
Tropical forests;
and specific forests
Fossil records
climate change, 456–457
extinction rates, 8, 13, 51, 54
gaps, 55
rain forests, 56
Foxglove (Digitalis spp.), 84–87
Frankfurt Zoological Society (Federal Republic of Germany), 147
Franklin, Jerry F., 166–175
Freezing, see Cryopreservation
Freshwater habitats, see Rivers;
Wetlands
Fungi, 7, 93, 94, 214, 357, 374
G
Game management, 374–376
Gatun Lake (Panama), 12
Gavio Indians, 142;
see also Amerindians
Genetic diversity
allelic, 7
captive breeding populations, 290, 291
conservation, 240–241, 244–246, 270, 273–275, 361–368
crops, 81, 207–208, 240–246, 361–368
hamlet fishes, 40–41
islands, 184
monitoring, 240
old-growth forests, 167
population biology and molecular genetics, 291
reduction, 7, 11–12, 22, 32, 81, 179, 208, 378
research problem areas, 245–246
wild gene pools, 82
within species, 25
see also Biodiversity
Genetic engineering, 110, 122, 134, 213
Geological records, 26, 33, 51–57
Geological time, 51–52, 54, 56–57;
see also specific geological periods
Germany, Federal Republic of, 75, 92
Germplasm, sources, 363–365;
see also Crops;
Genetic diversity;
Restoration of species
Giant Sable Integral Nature Reserve (Angola), 254
Gibson, R., 111
Ginger, wild (Asarum canadense), 313
Ginseng products, 91
Global 2000 Report, 60, 63, 296
Global exchange economy
agricultural transformation, 206
biodiversity losses, 206–210
comparative advantage, 208
see also Biodiversity, economic considerations;
Resource economics
Gnotobiotic ecosystems, 340–341
Goats (Capra hircus), 183
Golden Gate National Recreation Area (San Francisco), 73
Golden Gate Park (San Francisco), 73
Golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), 146, 149, 264, 286
Golden seal (Hydrastis canadensis), 86
Goldthread (Coptis japonica), 87
Goodland, Robert A., 437–445
Goosefish (Lophius americanus), 39, 40
Gorilla, mountain (Gorilla gorilla), 146, 222
Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), 282
Grasses, 134, 178, 202–203, 222;
see also Grasslands;
Grazing;
and specific species
Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus sarannanum), 178
Grasslands
agriculture conversions, 176–177, 179
annual, 75
characteristics, 176–177
dambos, 255–256
endemism levels, 179
grazing, 176–179
Highveld, 255
importance, 157
invertebrates, 179
management, 177
origin, 179
pampas, 176
patch dynamics, 75
perennial, 161
puna, 100
shifting cultivation, 141
subtle impacts, 177–179
see also Grasses;
Grazing;
Prairies
Grassle, J.F., 38
Grazing
benefits, 179
grasslands, 176–179
oceanic islands, effects, 181, 186
plants adapted to withstand, 100
Great auk (Penguinus impennis), 45
Great Britain, 72
Great Lakes (Africa), 252
Great Lakes (North America), 252
Great Smoky Mountains National Park (North Carolina-Tennessee), 159, 183, 188
Great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), 48
Greenhouse effect, 32, 450–452;
see also Climate
Green iguana (Iguana iguana), 356, 371–372, 435
Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), 282
Ground water, pattern changes, 72
Guanabana (Annona muricata), 109
Guanacaste National Park (Costa Rica), 159, 338
Guans, crested, 103
Guaraná (Paullinia cupana), 111–112
Guatemala, 29
Guava (Psidium spp.), 183, 187
Guppy, Nicholas, 15
H
Habitats
conversion to less-productive systems, 23, 25, 73–76
definition, 42
destruction, 10, 21–24, 25, 28, 30, 54, 56, 66, 73–75, 80, 187, 296, 317, 355, 410–411
forest structures, 170–171
Holdridge Life Zone Classification System, 61
management, 133
mountainous, 71
ocean vents, 45
Haldane, J.B.S., 215
Haleakala National Park (Hawaii), 183
Hamlet fish (Hypoplectrus spp.), 40–41
Hamster, South African (Mystromys albicaudatus), 296
Hanemann, W.Michael, 193–199
Harlow’s rhesus monkey, 468–469
Harris’ hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), 282
Harvard Botanical Museum, 114
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 183, 187
Hawaiian Islands
avian reintroduction, 281
biological invasions, 163, 182–183, 184–185
deforestation, 187
endemism, 181–183
extinctions, 183
forest dynamics, 184
human colonization, 182–183
see also specific species
Heath, woody plant diversity, 159
Hedgerows, 386–389
Heinroth, Oskar, 281
Hellebore, false (Veratrum album), 88
Hemlock (Tsuga spp.), 167, 453, 456
Hemp (Cannabis saliva), 89
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), 86
Henslow’s sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii), 178
Herbal Pharmacology Delegation, 92
Herbalism, see Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived;
Traditional medicine
Himalayan foothills, monsoon forests, 31
Hippopotamus, pygmy, 151
Holdren, John, 24
Holdridge Life Zones, 61
Holland, H.D., 487
Homo sapiens, evolution, 55
Honduras, 29
Hong Kong, 161
Hopkins bioclimatic law, 456
Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris), 178
Horned poppy (Glaucium flavum), 86
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), 84
Horseshoe crab (Limulus spp.), 40
House mouse (Mus musculus), 7
Huntley, Brian J., 248–260
Hurricanes, effects on species diversity, 65, 67;
see also Climate
Hybridization
ex situ conservation, 274
somatic, 244
tomatoes, 101–102
see also Cross-breeding
Hymenaea courbaril (tree), 357
I
Ice Age
tropical forest depletions, 33, 55
Iguana, green (Iguana iguana), 356, 371–372, 435
Iltis, Hugh H., 98–105
Inbreeding, gene loss, 296–297;
see also Genetic diversity
India
agroforestry program, 396–397
closed tropical forest area, 148
deforestation rates, 29
plant drug screening, 92
World Bank forestry/agricultural projects, 401
Indian pennywort (Centella asiatica), 84
Indian snakeroot (Rauvolfia serpentina), 84, 85, 88
Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata), 87
Indians, see Amerindians
Indonesia
Dumoga Bone National Park, 397, 405, 440
National Botanical Garden of, 276
primates, 149–150
reforestation and conservation programs, 395, 397, 405
transmigration program, 395
tropical forest area, 147–148
wildlands of concern, 438
World Bank forestry/agricultural projects, 399
Indri (Indri indri), 146, 150–151
Information management, 231–238
Insecticides, see Pesticides
Insects
effects of destruction of, 24
global description, 232
host specificity, 123, 124–129
potential uses, 15
sap-sucking, 179
speciation, 56
see also specific species
Insularization, biodiversity losses, 13, 74
Inter-American Development Bank, 80
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 240–247, 361–362
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), 60
International Legume Database Information Service, 246
International Rice Research Institute, 276
International Species Inventory System (ISIS), 266, 292–293, 297–298
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
biogeographic classification, 229
Conservation Monitoring Center, 292
Global Strategy for Primate Conservation, 146–147, 152
protected areas data base, 255
Red Data Books, 127, 257–259, 289
Species Survival Commission, 147
International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens, 292
Introduced species, see Exotic species
Invasions, see Exotic species
Invertebrates
exploitation, 24
grassland, 179
marine, 39
see also specific species
Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha), 86
Islands
adaptive radiation, 182
biogeography theory, 6, 11–12, 29–32, 42, 62, 100, 162–163, 181–189, 269–270, 275
deforestation, 62
exotic species invasions, 68
fragility, 65–66
remnant secondary forest, 67
South Pacific, threat to, 31
survivorship patterns of species, 8
see also Caribbean islands;
Oceanic islands;
West Indies;
and specific islands
Israel, 158–159
Ivory Coast (Africa), 31, 120, 438
J
Jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandi), 88
Jaguars (Felis onca), 103, 132
Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix), 284
Jenkins, Robert E., Jr., 231–239
Jordan, William R., III, 311–316
Junipers (Juniperus spp.), 171
K
Kampo, traditional medicine in Japan, 91–92
Kangaroo, tree (Dendrolagus spp.), 356
Karr, J.R., 12
Kartesz, John, 238
Karyat (Andrographis paniculata), 84, 87
Kava (Piper methysticum), 87
see also Amerindians
Kermadec Islands, 185
see also specific species
“Kingdom of the Apes,” 426
Kirtland’s warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii), 457
Kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis), 108
Kruger National Park (South Africa), 258
Kudzu vine (Pueraria phaseoloides), 372
Kutchin Indians, 279;
see also Amerindians
L
Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius), 45
Lakes
freshwater, 75
geologically ancient, 8
oxbow, formation, 125
Land management
agencies, 74
development planning aid, 237
strategies, 68–69
Landraces, 241–243, 246, 276, 362
Langurs, 297
Lark, horned (Eremophila alpestris), 178
Las Joyas field station (Mexico), 103
Latin America
Biogeography Project, 234–235
burning of forests for farmland, 79
Centres de Datos para la Conservacion, 233
conservation perspectives, 428–436
deep ecology, 79–80
deforestation projections, 64–65
extinction rates, 64–65
wildlands of concern, 439
see also Central America;
South America;
and specific countries
Lazarus effect, 55
Leafcutter ants (Atta spp.), 111, 329–330, 357
see also specific species
see also specific species
Lichens
Lobaria oregana, 167
pharmaceutical products, 93, 94
Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), 86
Light-footed clapper rail (Rallus longirostris levipes), 317, 322, 323
Lily, resurrection or magic (Lycoris squamigera), 86
Lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), 85
Lions, Asiatic, 291
Littlebird, Larry, 476–480
Lizard
leopard, 222
story, 478–480
Llamas, 100
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), 336
Log factor in biodiversity, 169–171
Lonchocarpus spp. (vine), 111
London Zoo, 304
Lorcifera phylum, 46
Lorenz, Konrad, 281
Lovelock, James E., 37, 44, 48, 486–489
Lowlands, wet tropical, 158
Lugo, Ariel E., 58–70
Lulo (Solanum quitoense), 109
Lupin (Lupinus mutabilis), 367
Luquillo Experimental Forest Biosphere Reserve (Puerto Rico), 67, 68
Luó guō di (Hemsleya amabilis), 86
Lynx, 71
M
Ma-huang (Ephedra sinica), 86, 88
Mackey, Dale, 296
Madagascar
biological invasion effects, 182
closed tropical forest area, 148
Coffea spp., 110
deforestation rates, 29–30
forest cover, 10
habitat destruction, 187
palms, 150
Madeira, floristic diversity, 161
Magnolia (Magnolia spp.), 103, 456
Maize (Zea diploperennis; Z. mays), 103–105, 121;
see also Corn;
Teosinte
Malabar nuts (Adhatoda vasica), 90
Malaysia
closed tropical forest area, 148
domestication of oil plants, 113
forest conservation policies, 396–397
forest productivity intensification, 374, 395
wildlands of concern, 438
World Bank forestry/agriculture projects, 399
Mammals
artificial insemination, 303–304
diversity, 5, 71, 131, 250, 266
dynamics of large populations, 258
exchange via Panamanian land bridges, 6–7
extinctions, 184–186, 204, 357
game management, 374–376
herbivores, 185–186
introduced on islands, 184–186
word pictures and poems, 470–475
see also specific species
Manatees (Trichechus spp.), 453
Manioc (Manihot esculentia), 373
Manu Park Preserve (Peru), 120
Margarita, 12
Margulis, Lynn, 487
Marijuana (Cannabis saliva), 89
Marine environments
assimilative capacity, 49
classification, 42–43
ecological diversity, 36–49
extinctions, 52
farming, 37
food resources, 23–24
medical products, 93–94
net primary production, 24
pollution, 24
pelagic, 75
stability, 42
temperate communities, 42
tropical reefs, 42
wave energy, 46
see also Coral reefs;
Deep sea
Marshlands
Mather, Cotton, 99
Mauritius, 357
Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus), 280, 282, 382
May apple (Podophyllum peltatum), 86, 88–89
see also Amerindians
McClure, Michael, 470–475
Meadowlark, eastern (Sturnella magna), 178
Medicine, see also Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived;
Traditional medicine
Mediterranean basin, transformation from native state, 161–162
Mediterranean-climate regions
biological richness, 158–160
floristic diversity, 160–162
human impact on biodiversity, 160, 162
introduction of exotic species, 162–164
Megamouth sharks (Megachasma pelagios), 46
Memphis Zoo, 304
Mencken, H.L., 265
Merrick, Laura C., 361–369
Mesoamerican dry forest, 134
Mexico
closed tropical forest area, 148
conservation awareness, 429
crop germplasm resources, 363–364
deforestation rates, 120
environmental protection capabilities, 435–436
Jalisco, 103
kitchen gardens (chinampas), 366
maize, 103–104
peasant agriculture, 363–364, 366
political environment, 431–432
Sierra de Manantlán, 103
socioeconomic environment, 429–431
see also specific species
Miocene age, 6
Misol, 12
Missouri
Babler State Park, 159
tall-grass prairie, 178
TROPICOS system, 246
woody plant diversity, 158–159
Missouri Botanical Garden, 114, 152
Mittermeier, Russell A., 145–154
Modeling
climatic effects on biodiversity, 52
refugium, 56
Monitoring techniques, 227–230, 231–239
Monkeys, see specific species
Mooney, Harold A., 157–165
Moonseed (Menispermum spp.), 456
Morton, Eugene, 39
Mount Ranier National Park (Washington), 183
Mount Roraima (Venezuela), 98
Mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), 146, 222
Mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia spp.), 335
Mouse lemur (Microcebus mirinus), 145, 150
Mozambique, 254–255
Muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides), 145, 149
Murphy, Dennis D., 71–76
Mustard, black (Brassica nigra), 84
N
Nanaloricus mysticus (sediment organism), 46
NAPRALERT data base, 93
Naranjilla (Solanum quitoese), 109
Nasturtium (Rorrippa indica), 88
National Botanical Garden of Indonesia, 276
National Cancer Institute, plant screening for drugs, 92, 95
National Conservation Strategy Conference, 152
National Geographic Society, 114
National Heritage Data Centers
applications of data, 235–237
contributors, 238
distribution geographically, 233
networking and central data bases, 229, 234–235
National Museum of Natural History, 234
National Parks, see Parks and recreation areas;
and specific parks
National Research Council Board on Science and Technology for International Development, 15
Nations, James, D., 79–82
Natural selection, simulation ex situ, 274
Nature Conservancy, 229, 232–238, 339, 414;
see also National Heritage Data Centers
Neon tetras (Paracheirodon innesi), 22
Nepal
contour hedgerow project; 386–387
forest conservation policies, 397
World Bank forestry/agricultural projects, 401
Net primary production, 23–24, 26, 333
New Caledonia, 31
New Guinea
closed tropical forest area, 148
food plants, 395
land bridges, 12
New York City
Botanical Garden, 114
Central Park, 73
Gateway National Recreation Area, 73
Zoological Society, 147
New Zealand
avian reintroductions, 281
Niche formation, 205;
see also Adaptive radiation;
Speciation
Nile perch (Lates nilotica), 252
Nimuendaju, Curt, 142
Norgaard, Richard B., 206–211
North America, exchange of land mammals between South America and, 6–7
North Atlantic, coastal and marine environments, classification, 43
Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis), 167, 169
Norton, Bryan, 200–205
see also specific species
O
Ocana, Gilberto, 370–376
Oceanic islands
atolls, 182
critical habitats, 187
ecological research, 187–188
ecosystem-level effects, 186–187
endemism, 182
evolution and speciation rates, 182
exotic species invasions, 181–188
extinction, 181–182
feral pigs and cats, 186–187
founder effects, 184
grazing, 181–182
herbivorous mammals, 184–186
human colonization, 181–182
management and protection, 185
rats, 186
susceptibility to invading species, 184–185
see also specific islands
Ocelots (Felis pardalis), 103
Office of Endangered Species, 75, 236
Office of Technology Assessment, 14
Óhiá (Metrosideros polymorpha), 184
Oils, industry uses and new sources, 112–113
Oops unit of loss, 204–205
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), 85, 87
Opler, Paul, 238
Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), 291
see also specific species
Organization of Timber-Exporting Countries, 15, 404
Orinoco basin, 11
Oryx, Arabian (Oryx leucoryx), 265, 286, 290
Osage oranges (Maclura spp.), 453
Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), 282
see also specific species
P
Pacas (Cuniculus paca), 356, 372–373, 375
Pagoda tree (Sophora pachycarpa), 87
Palms, 84, 109–110, 113, 114, 374;
see also specific species
Panama
AID natural resources project, 415
alternatives to deforestation, 370–375
beetle species, 123
captive breeding of pacas, 372–373
forest gardening, 373–374
land bridge, 6
management of game animals, 374–375
management of green iguana, 371–372
woody plant diversity, 158
Pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), 45, 106, 470
Papaya (Carica papaya), 85, 87
Paradise tree (Simaruba glauca), 86
Parks and recreation areas
alien plants, 183
Central Park (New York City), 73
Fairmont Park (Philadelphia), 73
Gateway National Recreation Area (New York City), 73
Golden Gate National Recreation Area (San Francisco), 73
Golden Gate Park (San Francisco), 73
Rock Creek Park (Washington, D.C.), 73
understory foliage removal, 75
value, 73
see also Zoological parks;
and specific parks
Parrot, Puerto Rican (Amazonia vittata), 286
see also specific species
Parsley, prairie (Polytaenia nuttallii), 314
Patauá palm (Jessenia bataua), 113
Pawpaws (Asimina spp.), 453
Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), 109, 374
Peccaries (Tayassu spp.), 135, 375, 453
Pelicans, California brown (Pelicanus occidentalis), 322
Pennywort, Indian (Centella asiatica), 84
People’s Republic of China
deforestation, 379
Dushen production, 384–386
forestry projects, 406
ginko tree preservation, 66–67
plant screening for drugs, 92
population, 92
Peppermint (Mentha spp.), 87
Perch, Nile (Lates nilotica), 252
see also Falcons
Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus; Vinca minor), 90
Persea spp. (trees), 111
Peru
Andes, 100
Central Selva Resource Management Project, 414
closed tropical forest area, 148
contrasted with Brazilian forest, 126–127
crops, 364
Cuczo, 100
Curahuasi, 101
deforestation rates, 29
fiber-producing plants, 114
Manu Park, 120
Napo center of Amazonia, 31
Palcazu valley project, 414
primates, 149–150
puna (grassland), 100
species richness, 100
tomato discovery, 99–100
Pesticides
caffeine, 112
ecosystem disruption, 72
methyl carbamate insecticides, 111
natural, from plants, 87, 107, 110–112, 357
pyrethrum insecticides, 111
Peters, Robert L., II, 450–461
Petroleum substitutes, botanochemicals as, 112
Phanerozoic time, extinction data, 51–54, 57
Pharmaceuticals, see Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived
Pheasant’s eye (Adonis vernalis), 84
Philippines, 31, 397, 400, 438
Phlox, smooth (Phlox glaberrima), 314
Photosynthesis, 23
Phyla, marine and terrestrial, 38–39
Pickleweed (Salicornia bigelovii), 320, 323
Pigs
bearded (Sus barbatus), 356
Pike’s Peak Research Station (Colorado), 336
Pineapple (Ananas comosus), 85
Pine trees (Pinus spp.), 75, 167, 335
Pinyin (Daphne genkwa), 90
Piquiá (Caryocar spp.), 111
Plant Conservation, Center for, 238
Plant Genetic Resources, International Board for, 241–246
Plants
Afrotropical realm species, 250–251
see also Crops
cellulose uses, 113
cultivation programs for new drugs, 95
defenses, 186
see also Crops
effects of climate change, 452
ex situ preservation, 265, 270–277
extinctions, 11, 12, 29, 33, 52, 63, 97
fats and oils, 112–113
fibers, 113–114
see also Genetic diversity
human dependence, 106
in situ preservation, 105
interactions with animals, 186–187
lysine-containing, 109
medicinal, see Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived;
Traditional medicine
pigmenting agent, 90
poisons, 87–88
population management, 270
potential applications, 15, 106–115
projected extinction rate, 11, 12
propagation, 270
screening for medicines, 81, 83–97
see also Germplasm
species-specific natural selection, 275
terrestrial compared to marine, 39
tissue cultures, 272
tropical
urban usefulness, 73
see also Crops;
Flowering plants;
Grasses;
Grasslands;
Trees;
Weeds;
Woodlands;
and specific species
Pleistocene Epoch, 33, 52, 56, 57
Plotkin, Mark J., 106–116
Pollution
see also Exotic species
marine, 24
water, 72
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 72
Polymorphism, genetic, 7
Polynesia, 10
Pondicherry vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), 280
Poplar, yellow (Liriodendron spp.), 456
see also specific species
Population growth (human)
conservation and, 425
effect on biodiversity, 21, 22, 25–27, 59, 63, 206
food supply and, 99
rare species response, 423–424
San Francisco Bay Area, 75
small-scale cultivators, 29
threat to rain forests, 10, 59, 80
Potatoes, 99–100, 110–111, 364;
see also specific species
Prairie chicken, greater (Tympanucus cupido), 178
Prairie parsley (Polytaenia nuttallii), 314
Prairies
ferret dependence, 22
fires, 177–178
restoration, 312–314
see also Grasslands
Predators/predation
as extinction factor, 66, 72, 185, 186
control programs, misdirected, 72
seed, 330–331
Preservation of species
animal marking and monitoring, 290, 375
artificial incubation, 264
artificial insemination, 264, 281, 303–304
artificial selection controls, 274
breeding programs, 280–282, 290–291, 371–373, 396
captive management, 284–287, 289–293;
see also Zoological parks
cryogenic storage of seed, 272
disease management, 290
DNA libraries, 272
embryo cryopreservation, 302–303
embryo transfer, 264, 266, 298–302
fostering, cross-fostering, 264, 266, 283
germplasm, 242–244
hacking, 283
high-technology role, 263–268, 289–294
information management, 231–238, 291–293
long-term propagation, 264
primate, 146–148
relocation, 264
restraint and capture of animals, 289–290
role in conservation, 311
seed banks, 271–272, 275, 276, 363
short-term propagation and reintroduction, 264, 279–280
sperm and embryo banks, 297, 302–303, 304–305
sperm cryopreservation, 304–305
tissue cultures, 272, 274, 275
transplantation, 264
see also Conservation;
Cross-breeding
Preserves
adequacy to prevent biodiversity losses, 22, 25
development, 74
grassland, 75
land administration, 236
oak woodlands, 75
site management, 237
size considerations, 74, 75, 311
see also Ecological reserves;
and specific preserves and reserves
Primates
Beza-Mahafaly project, 152
Brazilian, 146–150
Central African Republic, 148–150
Colombia, 149–150
conservation strategies, 146–147
embryo collections and transfers, 298–299, 301
endemism, 148–150
geographic distribution, 149
IUCN efforts, 146–147
live trapping, 146
Madagascar, 145–152
orangutans, 291
Peru, 149–150
population decline, 147
protection, organizations supporting, 146–147, 152
threatened, 145–146
value, 146
World Wildlife Fund efforts, 146
see also specific species
Pronghorn antelope (Antilocarpia americana), 71
Protists, 39
Public interest/awareness
effect on resource allocation, 58
extinction issues, 65
Puna (Peruvian grassland), 100
Pupunha (Bactris gasipaes), 109
Pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus), 145
Purple milk vetch (Astragalus dasyglottis), 335
Q
Quail, Japanese (Coturnix coturnix), 284
Quinine, wild (Parthenium integrifolium), 314
R
Raccoon (Procyon lotor), 71
Rail, light-footed clapper (Rallus longirostris levipes), 317, 322, 323
Rain forests
Amerindian management, 138–143
climate change effects, 209
conservation programs, 15–16, 135
definition and characteristics, 8–9
ecology, 9
extent, 8
fossil record, 56
geographic distribution, 61
human population pressures, 80
logistic problems in studying, 126
lumbering, 15
New World tropical mainland, 11
Peruvian Amazon, 5;
see also Amazonia
refugia, 56
see also Reforestation
soil, 9
species kills, 56
threatened, 3, 9–10, 15, 16, 130;
see also Deforestation
value, 213
see also Tropical forests
Ramkokamekra Canela Indians, 142;
see also Amerindians
Ramos, Mario A., 428–436
Randall, Alan, 217–223
Rangoon creeper (Quisqualis indica), 88
see also specific species
Rattans (Demoncus spp.), 114, 406
Rattlebox (Crotalaria spectabilis), 87
Raup, David M., 51–57
Raven, Peter H., 119–122
Ray, C.Carleton, 36–50
Red Data Books, 127, 257–259, 289
Redwood forests, 75
Refugia
maps, 56
Pleistocene, in Afrotropical realm, 251
rain forests, 56
tropical dry forests, 131
Reproduction
artificial insemination, 264, 281, 303–304
breeding programs, 280–282, 290–291, 371–373, 396
breeding success of birds, 186, 280–282
cryopreservation, 272, 292, 302–305
embryo rescue techniques, 244
embryo transfer, 264, 266, 298–302
germplasm, 242–244
nonhuman primate, 298–299, 301
seed banks, 271–272, 275, 276, 363
sperm and embryo banks, 297, 302–303, 304–305
technological development, for exotic species, 305
tissue cultures, 272, 274, 275
see also Cross-breeding
Reptiles
economic utilization, 356, 371–372
forest habitats, 170
see also specific species
Reserva Biosfera de la Sierra de Manantlán (Mexico), 103
Reserves, see Ecological reserves;
and specific reserves and preserves
Resource economics
anthropocentric, 21, 47, 217–218
contingent valuation, 202, 218–220, 222
cost-benefit analysis, 198, 221
decision-making criteria, 193–199
divide-and-conquer method, 201–205
empirical valuation techniques, 220–221
implicit pricing, 220
instrumentalist, 217–218
irreversibility problem, 195, 202–203
safe minimum standard, 221
species aggregation level, 197, 214
utilitarian, 198, 217–219, 222–223
welfare change measurement approach, 194, 217–218
see also Biodiversity, economic considerations;
Global exchange economy
Resource management
agencies, 74
decisionmaking, 194
economic factors, see Resource economics
strategies, 68–69
Restoration ecology, see Restoration of species
Restoration of species
alternative ecosystems, 333
Amazonia, 326–332
effectiveness of projects, 314–316, 334–337
genetic consequences, 273–275
Guanacaste National Park, 338–339
obstacles, 133–134, 328–330, 337–338
predictive modeling, 237
prospects, 341–342
socioeconomic factors, 314–316
strategies, 122, 134–135, 330–332, 344–352
technical, ecological feasibility, 313–314
tropical dry forests, 122, 133–135
University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum project, 312–314, 344
wetlands projects, 317–325
see also Preservation of species
Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), 150
Rio Palenque Biological Station (Ecuador), 11
Risser, Paul G., 176–180
Rivers
conservation needs in Africa, 256–257
diversity losses, 171
Robinson, Michael H., 355–360
Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (Gothic, Colorado), 335, 336
Rocky Mountain National Park (Colorado), 159, 183, 334, 339
Rodents, 356–357;
see also specific species
Rodrigues Islands, 183;
see also Islands
Rubinoff, Ira, 370–376
Rye (Secale cereale), 243
S
Sage (Salvia oppositifolia), 75, 100
Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), 171
St. Helena, 183
St. Mary’s milk (Silybum marianum), 89
Salt marsh bird’s beak (Cordylanthus maritimus), 317, 322
San Francisco Bay Area, 71, 73, 75
San Juan Mountains (Colorado), 172
Sandpiper, upland (Bartramia longicanda), 178
Santa Catalina Mountains (Arizona), 159
Santa Rosa National Park (Costa Rica), 131
see also Grasslands;
Prairies
Scleractinia order, 55;
see also Coral reefs
Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), 89
Sea-blite (Suaeda esteroa), 320
Sea poppy (Glaucium flavum), 86
Sea turtle, Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), 286, 304
Seal, golden (Hydrastis canadensis), 86
Seal, Ulysses S., 289–295, 297
see also specific species
Seas, see Deep sea;
Marine environments
Seed
predation, 331–332
preservation, 240–247, 271–272, 276–277, 362
Senna (Cassia spp.), 85
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park (California), 183
Seychelles, plant invaders, 163
see also specific species
Shen, Sinyan, 377–389
Shenandoah National Park (Virginia), 183
Shiner, striped, 222
see also Grasslands
Sierra de Manantlán (Mexico), 103
Sifakas (Propithecus spp.), 151
Sillen, Lars, 487
Silurian graptolites, 8
Siskiyou Mountains (Oregon), 159
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 370–376
Smooth phlox (Phlox glaberrima), 314
Smythe, Nicholas, 370–376
Snakeroot, Indian (Rauvolfia serpentina), 84, 85, 88
Snow leopard (Felis undo), 472–473
Soil
erosion, 73, 344–345, 386–387, 447–448
fertility loss, 24
organisms, extinction, 24
see also specific species
Soulé, Michael E., 465–469
Soursop (Annona muricata), 109
South Africa
Cape Province, 269
Karoo, 255
Kruger National Park, 258
South African hamster (Mystromys albicaudatus), 296
South America
dry tropical regions, 130
exchange of land mammals with North America, 6–7
new crops, 109
projected plant extinction, 11
rain forests, replacement by savannas, 56
rain forests, species diversity, 9
river conservation needs, 256
see also Latin America
see also Asia;
and specific countries
Southern Ocean, key species, 42, 47
Soya bean (Glycine spp.), 244
see also specific species
Spearmint (Mentha spp.), 87
Spears, John, 393–402
Speciation, 32, 100, 182, 208, 275
Species
amenity value, 201
commodity value, 201
diversity, see Biodiversity
geographically restricted, 56
interdependence, 203
introduced, see Exotic species
keystone, 42, 44, 47, 203, 265
levels, 39
multiplication, see Speciation
numbers, globally, 3–6, 60, 200, 232
rare, response to stresses, 422–423
relationship to area, 11, 12, 63
replacement, 55
restoration, 122, 133–135, 279–287
survival, obstacles, 263
value, 68, 79, 81, 201–202, 210, 215–216
Species Survival Plan, 266, 290, 293
Spiny rats (Proechimys semispinosus), 375
Spotted leopard (Felis pardus), 21
Spruce, Engelmann (Picea engelmanni), 24, 455, 456
Squill (Urginea maritima), 89
Stanford Center for Conservation Biology, 238
Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), 45
Stewardship in conservation, 172–173, 231, 236, 352
Striped shiner, 222
Strychnos nux-vomica (tree), 89
Succession, floristic, 167–169, 327, 328
Sugarcane, cross-breeding, 110
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), 243
Suriname, 148
Svoboda, Gordon H., 94
Sweetgum tree (Liquidambar spp.), 456
Systematic Collections, Association of, 238
T
Tai Forest (Ivory Coast, Africa), 31, 120, 438
Tamarins, 146, 149, 264, 286, 296;
see also specific species
Tambopata Reserved Zone (Peru)
ant species, 9
location and characteristics, 124–125
number of insect species, 128
Tapirs (Tapirus spp.), 135, 453
Tarsiers (Tarsius spp.), 145
Tarutao National Park (Thailand), 415
Taxonomy and taxonomists, 13, 14, 38–40, 98, 99, 101, 243, 246
Taylor, Kenneth I., 138–144
Tea (Camellia sinensis), 85, 89
Temperate forests
aquatic ecosystems, 170
maintaining structural and functional diversity, 169–171
Nature Conservancy and, 171
old-growth, 167–169
preservation, 167–168
protecting aquatic diversity, 171–172
restoration potential, 166, 334–337
stewardship programs, 172–173
successional states, 167–169
young, 167–168
see also Forests
Temperate Zone, 159
Terborgh, John, 12
Tern, California least (Sterna albifrons browni), 317, 322, 323
Thailand, 364, 394–395, 396, 410, 415
Third World
causes of and alternatives to destruction, 355–356
deforestation rates, 410
economic assistance linked to conservation, 15, 198–199
indigenous plant drugs, 95
in situ conservation of native crop diversity, 361–368
landrace use in agriculture, 243
level of conservation information, 230
population pressures, 10, 75–76
traditional medicine, 91
see also specific Third World countries
Thistle, holy (Silybum marianum), 89
Tigers (Felis tigris), 292
Tilapia, African (Tilapia spp.), 347
Timber-Exporting Countries, Organization of, 15
Tobacco, Indian (Lobelia inflata; Nicotiana tobacum), 87
Tobago, 12
Todd, John, 344–352
Tomatillo (Lycopersicon peruvianum), 101
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon spp.), 99–101, 110
Toothpick plant (Ammi visnaga), 87
Torre, Ruiz de la, 162
Townsville clover (Stylosanthes guianensis), 374
Traditional medicine, 84–90, 91, 92;
see also Drugs and pharmaceuticals, plant-derived
Trees, 9, 61, 62, 66, 74, 161, 186, 395;
see also Plants;
and specific species
Tristan da Cunha, 183
Triticeae (grasses), 244
Trophic relationships, 40–41
Tropical dry forests
conditions and characteristics, 61–62, 130–131, 136
conserved wildland, 132
diversity, 131–133
endangered status, 130
fires, 130
future prospects, 136–137
hardiness, 136
refugia, 131
restoration, 133–135
seasonal changes, 130–131
species activities and interactions, 131–132, 159
threatened, 133–136
value, 132
see also Tropical forests
Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 404–405, 406
Tropical forests
Asian region, 393–402
classification, 61–62
conservation programs, 68–69, 396–398
deforestation, 8–11, 28–34, 60–64, 119–122, 393–394, 403
dry, 61–62;
see also Tropical dry forests
edible oils, 113
evapotranspiration, 62
extinction rates, 10–13, 58–69, 121
fires, 67
gardening, 373–374
human population pressures, 120
insect diversity, 123–129
land conversion pathways, 61
land surface globally, 28–29, 60–61
see also Rain forests
natural catastrophes affecting, 67
open, 60–61
patch dynamics, 67
productivity, 45, 61, 393, 395–396
rates of change, 60–61
reductions in area, 62, 63, 66
regeneration, 60, 62, 67, 134–137, 404–408
solutions to deforestation, 394–396
species extinction rates, 10–13, 58–69, 121
species volume, 38, 59, 61, 63
tree species diversity, 61–62
types, 61–62
understory, 61
Trout (Salvelinus spp.), 22, 347
Trumpet flower (Mutisia), 100
Tucúm palm (Astrocaryum tucuma), 114
Tugela Basin (Natal), 256
Tumbleweed (Anabasis aphylla), 84
Tumeric (Curcuma longa), 85
Tundras, Andran, 100
Turtle, sea, Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), 286, 304
Twisted flower (Strophanthus gratus), 87
U
Ugent, Don, 99
Uhl, Christopher, 326–332
UNESCO Man in the Biosphere program, 103
United Nations Development Programme, 398
United States
Bureau of Land Management, 74
edible plants, 107
Fish and Wildlife Service, 238
food crop production, 107, 110
Forest Service, 74
grasslands, 177–179
National Park Service, 238, 412
national parks, alien plants, 183
plant drug screening, 92, 93, 95–96
remnant secondary forest islands, 67
species diversity, 101
sugarcane industry, 110
see also specific states and locations
University of California Natural Reserve System, 337
University of Michigan Biological Station (near Pellston), 334, 335, 336
University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, 311–316
Upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicanda), 178
Urban areas/habitats
acidification, 75
aesthetics, 73
aquifer overdrafting, 72
biodiversity benefits, 73
biodiversity losses, 71–76
conversion, 73–75
development and conservation, 73, 75
ecological destabilization, 72
exotic species introduction, 73
natural, 73
wetland destruction, 72
V
Vavilovian centers, 242–243
Velvet bean (Mucuna deeringiana), 86
Venezuela
Boca de Uchire, 159
Calabozo, 159
closed tropical forest area, 148
woody plant diversity, 159
see also specific species
Vetch, purple milk (Astragalus dasyglottis), 335
Vicunas (Lama vicugna), 100
Vinca alkaloids, 94–95
see also specific species
Vitousek, Peter M., 181–189
von Humboldt, Alexander, 98
see also specific species
W
see also specific species
Watersheds, Pacific Northwest, 168
Watershield (Brasenia), 456
Wattled crane (Grus carunculata), 255–256, 266
Weeds
introduction on oceanic islands, 181
threat to African heathland shrubs, 251
Werner, Dagmar, 370–376
see also Africa;
and specific countries
West Indies, 12, 63, 65–68, 120;
see also specific islands
Wetlands
conservation, 256
dambos, 255–256
destruction, 72
draining, 74
prospects, 324–325
restoration projects, 317–325, 333, 341–342
see also specific species
Wheat, importance, 107, 121, 244
Wheatgrass, crested (Agropyron cristatum), 178
White-footed mouse (Peromyscus spp.), 71
White-fringed orchid (Habenaria leucophaea), 314
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 375
White-tailed hawk (Buteo albicaudatus), 281
White-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), 282
Whooping cranes (Grus americana), 222, 264, 286
Wildlife Preservation Trust International, 147
Wild quinine (Parthenium interfolium), 314
Williams, J.Trevor, 240–247
Willis, E.O., 12
Willow, white (Salix alba), 89
Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), 395
Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), 87
Wolverine (Gulo luscus), 71
Wood grass (Sorghastrum nutans), 359, 379–386
Woodchuck (Marmoto monax), 297
Woodlands
grazed, 159
preserves, 75
species extinctions in urban areas, 71
Wooly monkeys (Lagothrix spp.), 146, 264
World Bank
Asian forestry/agricultural projects, 397, 399–402
conservation role, 16
wildlands policy, 405, 413, 437–445
World Conservation Strategy, 83, 248, 253
World Health Organization, 60, 83
World Resources Institute, 60
World Wildlife Fund
biogeographic classification, 229
documentation of ethnobotanical lore, 114
expenditures for conservation, 407
Wormseed (Artemisia maritima), 89
X
Xerces blue butterflies, 75
Y
Yam, tuber-bearing (Dioscorea bulbifera), 374
Yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus), 374
Yanomami Indians, 138–142;
see also Amerindians
Yapen, 12
Yellow poplar (Liriodendron spp.), 456
Yellowstone National Park (Wyoming-Montana-Idaho), 183
Yuán huā (Daphne genkwa), 90
Z
Z factor, 63
Zaire basin
closed tropical forest area, 148
deforestation rates, 29
Zàng qiè (Anisodus tanguticus), 84
Zedler, Joy B., 317–325
Zimbabwe, Sengua Wildlife Research Area, 258
Zoological parks
animal restraint and capture, 290–291
biomedical resources, 290
breeding programs, 266–267, 290–291
criteria for propagation programs, 266
funding, 267
inbreeding problems, 296–297
nutrition, 290
population control, 291
role in preservation, 266
spaces for animals, 266
see also International Species Inventory System;
and specific zoological parks
Zoological Parks and Aquariums, American Association of, 266