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China Bound: A Guide to Academic Life and Work in the PRC (1987)

Chapter: 4. Research and Study

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Suggested Citation:"4. Research and Study." National Research Council. 1987. China Bound: A Guide to Academic Life and Work in the PRC. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/990.
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- - ~ - ~ - 4. Research and Study Educational reform in China has been given the same priority as mod- ernization. And the pragmatic spirit that characterizes reforms in these sectors has also affected China's universities and research institutes, which have been given increased responsibility for their own economic well-being as well as freedom to implement internal changes and es- tablish links with other institutions and enterprises, both within China and abroad. To date, Chinese institutions of higher learning have de- veloped formal exchange agreements with more than 180 U.S. colleges and universities. In addition, countless individual arrangements are being made between U.S. academics and their Chinese counterparts. On the Chinese side, these exchanges are motivated in large part by a genuine desire to use foreign materials and methodologies to improve the quality of the nation's academic programs. But many, quite frankly, are aimed at generating revenue as well. American academics who work in China now find themselves more intimately involved in Chinese intellectual life then they did five years ago, but they are also being drawn into a cash nexus as scholarship and study become increasingly more contractual and formalized. What this means in practical terms is that prices for services are going up and contractual relations are replacing informal agreements. A scientist who worked in China in 1985 and returned in 1986 calculates that he paid almost 7 percent more for his latest research trip even though it involved far less assistance. In- ternal inflation and the devaluation of the ynan are frequently cited to explain increases in prices. Some researchers who have worked in China in previous years through informal personal arrangements have re- turned to their danwei only to find themselves faced with the task of drawing up a contract for their proposed project complete with agree- 71

72 CHINA BOUND meets about payment for services. Recently, researchers have been asked to pay a flat research fee $300 per month if they are unaf- filiated with a formal exchange program. Especially thorny is the prob- lem of how to pay research assistants. Some American scholars have been disgruntled when asked to pay assistants who already are com- pensated by their danwei; others meanwhile have been thwarted when they attempted to reward assistants for extra services. Non-Chinese- speaking scientists have reported considerable frustration when they have been unable to enter into the process of negotiations for payment. Foreign students too are being charged more for room and board and tuition, sometimes without warning. In one case, students were pre- sented with a midsemester increase and the explanation that the order had come from a higher authority. When they asked to see written proof of the increase, the local foreign affairs office backed down. It seems clear that policies are interpreted locally; that negotiation is warranted if demands seem unreasonable or unclear; and that, how- ever personal are your relations with Chinese colleagues, interaction with the academic institution will be much more contractual than in the past. THE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES As part of the reforms in education, universities have been granted virtual autonomy in deciding matters of curriculum, personnel man- agement, and relations with other organizations. To oversee this vast network, the State Education Commission (SEC) was created in June 1985 and placed directly under the State Council with status equal to that of the State Economic Commission and the State Science and Technology Commission. The SEC replaces the Ministry of Education and is charged with formulating and implementing educational policies and with coordinating the distribution of resources. The reforms have affected the universities in significant areas. For example, there is more scope for economic and academic activities on an institutional level as well as individually. Although still primarily teaching institutions, universities are encouraging faculty to pursue their own research topics and to meet with colleagues at conferences both inside and outside China. Moonlighting is tolerated to an extent so that intellectuals who are still underpaid and less free than workers or peasants to take advantage of the economic opportunities made possible by the reforms can supplement their salaries. Faculty can also pursue on their own opportunities to teach and study abroad. But with this new latitude has come more responsibility for faculty. Now that some universities once again can confer master's and doctoral degrees, professors are busy with graduate students. And in line with improve-

RESEARCH AND STUDY 73 meets in undergraduate education, senior professors are now assigned to teach basic subjects in addition to advanced courses, which adds to their teaching burden. Because of the Cultural Revolution and the rel- atively low status of teachers in China generally, there is a shortage of well-trained personnel, and teacher training has become a priority in higher education. But until these newly trained teachers are ready to assume their duties, it is the middle-aged educators trained before the Cultural Revolution who will bear the major responsibility for teaching. New departments are being added to universities and existing de- partments are being revitalized. The international politics program, for example, is being upgraded at Beijing and Fudan Universities. Mul- tidisciplinary study is being encouraged with the establishment of re- search centers such as the American Studies Center at Beijing University, which will oversee an interdisciplinary M.A. program. At Qinghua Uni- versity, which has traditionally focused on engineering, multidiscipli- nary studies have been set up to integrate the study of science and technology in such fields as environmental engineering, biophysics, and genetic engineering. Also at Qinghua, a school of continuing education has been approved, and an accelerated program for gifted students has been added. The impact and structure of the new social sciences de- partment at Qinghua is described by a graduate student who studied Chinese Communist Party history there: "While I was at Qinghua, the department sponsored a one-week seminar on the curriculum for rev- olutionary history, which was attended by 100 teachers from all over China. They came to hear lectures given by the Qinghua staff and to look at materials developed for teaching" (China Exchange News, June 1986, p. 17). Decisions to establish new departments and to expand the curricu- lum, as well as personnel policies, are now determined internally at each particular university. The general trend has been to replace older scholars who dominated university departments and administration in the late 1970s with younger, more active staff. Many of these new ad- ministrators were educated in China or in the Soviet Union in the early 1950s and are less familiar with Western methodologies and languages than the older generation, some of whom received their advanced ed- ucation in the West. Students too are deeply influenced by the new educational policies. In China all students must pass extremely competitive examinations before they can enter university programs. They finance their education in one of three ways: securing funding from the state, which then has the right to assign a student to a particular job after graduation; con- tracting with an employer who pays the student's bills and then hires him or her after graduation; or paying for oneself, which, of the three methods, is the only one that carries no obligation after graduation.

74 CHINA BOUND The trend seems to be that the financial burden of an education is shifting more and more to students except for those in critical disci- plines who have severe financial hardships and unusual academic abil- ity. Students have new opportunities to earn their own way through part-time work-study programs on their campuses and in jobs off cam- pus during vacations. This trend clearly has advantages, but the urge to make money in some cases may begin to outweigh academic moti- vation one American professor noted that some students cut classes to knit and sell homemade sweaters on the free market. There are numerous reports of corruption and "backdoorism" in the universities as students use personal guanxi to get better grades and good jobs and some faculty engage in questionable outside activities. These practices generally have been dealt with severely when they are discovered, but in the competitive atmosphere that prevails in China, they probably will continue at some levels. The reforms announced at Beijing University in the spring of 1985 are reflected in other institutions. Students now have more flexibility in determining a major and in choosing courses and scheduling classes. Summer school is now offered for credit, class hours have been short- ened to allow more time for outside study, and in some cases electives are now allowed and the number of required courses has been reduced. As yet, these structural changes have not visibly changed attitudes toward study. Rote memorization and passive learning within rigid disciplinary bounds still prevail. And the quality of student life still warrants improvement. Students have continued the tradition of ac- tivism that is a part of student culture in China, and demonstrations can be stimulated by mundane concerns, such as bad food and the increased cost of textbooks, or by far more serious political issues, as recent reports suggest. Finally, although education in one of China's prestigious universities is still coveted, study abroad has become an important means to advancement. If they are not being financed by the government, students can make their own arrangements for study abroad, although rumor has it that new regulations are being formu- lated to restrict the numbers and categories of self-sponsored students going to other countries. How do these changes affect the foreigners who work and study in China's universities? For one, outsiders enter into a far more lively academic atmosphere than was possible five years ago when the uni- versities were still recovering from the Cultural Revolution and were trying above all to rebuild a faculty. Improvements in campus facilities are immediately noticeable. Deserted and ramshackle buildings have been removed or repaired, and on many campuses special dormitories and classrooms have been erected for foreigners. This segregation, how- ever, is often viewed by foreigners as a negative rather than a positive

RESEARCH AND STUDY 75 move because isolation from the university community becomes the price of better living conditions. Recent visitors have found their Chinese colleagues more over- whelmed with institutional commitments than in the past when teach- ing duties were light or at times nonexistent. The increased pressure on Chinese academics results in their having less time for work with foreign colleagues. The foreign scholar will be far more successful in China if he or she contributes whether through lectures, tutorials, or informal English classes to the modernization effort. Patricia Beaver, an anthropologist who studied women's roles as an exchange professor at Northeast University of Technology in Shenyang, describes the im- portance of her own efforts and her husband's participation in teaching as a means of entering the community: My husband and I, as teachers and occasional lecturers at a Friday night English lecture series, were able to participate more fully in the day to day life of the university. Placed in a foreign compound, we could have easily bypassed entirely the flow of Chinese community life. However, our roles as teachers and colleagues gave us the opportunity to interact with students and colleagues and develop friendships, which enhanced both the research process and our living experience. (China Exchange News, December 1984, p. 13) But even with the best possible rapport with the institution and warm relationships with a few colleagues, most American academics are never fully integrated into university life. Many report being routinely ex- cluded from departmental meetings and functions. Lynn Struve's re- search, for example, was facilitated by Nanjing University's history department, but she was not able to take full advantage of its intellec- tual life: "Everyone was very kind, but I never was invited to any departmental social functions or colloquia. I was introduced to only one graduate student in the very last week of my stay, and I met no other members of the departmental faculty besides the two who were formally appointed to assist me" (China Exchange News, December 1984, p. 18). Foreign students nave found themselves part of a rapidly growing community on most campuses. Beijing University, for example, hosted over 200 self-paying language students from abroad last summer; sim- ilar situations exist on other campuses. These large numbers of students place considerable strain on the human and material resources of the universities and at times lower the overall quality of academic work. The segment of the university that pays the heaviest price for all of this activity and reaps few benefits is the foreign affairs office. On some campuses, the waiban oversees all activities relating to outsiders: on others with large student populations, these duties fall to the tiuxue-

76 CHINA BOUND sheng hangongsh' or tiuban, the office for overseeing foreign students. The linban plays a key role in the lives of foreign residents on any college or university campus. Linban personnel are responsible for overseeing the myriad details of everyday student life. They assign housing and, if appropriate, room- mates, arrange travel permits, issue ration coupons, and upon depar- ture see their charges through customs. The linban shares the re- sponsibility for the scholarly needs of its constituents with the academic departments, managing such activities as arranging for library and photocopying privileges, helping to gather materials, providing lan- guage tutors, and finding a suitable academic adviser. It is possible to cross departmental lines and establish informal net- works within the university, but generally speaking as a foreigner you will be expected to work through departmental offices when making formal requests (for example, for permission to attend a conference or to meet with scholars in other units). You will be identified with a unit and within that unit, with a particular department; but you should not expect to become a fully integrated member of either. American re- searchers and students have at times expressed deep disappointment about their exclusion from departmental activities and their limited contact with faculty and students. Whether channeling requests through linban personnel is helpful or restrictive depends on how such individuals perceive their duties, how much authority they have been given, and how tightly the unit is or- ganized. Students and researchers at one university, for example, may find linban officials supportive of their research goals and helpful in arranging housing, attitudes that reflect the university's commitment to international exchanges. In other units, linban officials may be less willing to push the limits of their narrowly prescribed authority on behalf of foreigners. Barriers among institutions are formidable, and Chinese officials often are hesitant to cross them. Officials will on oc- casion tell you that they cannot help fulfill a particular request because the power to decide resides in another jurisdiction. It should be rec- ognized that this is a very real problem for linban personnel. Other problems sometimes arise because cadres often work with un- clear directives as to what they can and cannot do. As a foreigner, one of your best options is to try to understand cadres' viewpoints and the limits of their authority while you seek workable channels to achieve important goals. It takes considerable sensitivity and some time in China to know when to press your requests and when to give up and try another route. As one seasoned researcher comments, the indirect approach often yields far more than a "frontal assault on all the things that are not ideal."

RESEARCH AND STUDY 77 Unfortunately, there are some bureaucratic restraints that cannot be overcome. For example> permission to visit a site not open to foreigners may be repeatedly denied, no matter how important it is to your project or how supportive your colleagues try to be. You should bear in mind that research opportunities in China are still developing, and part of your role involves laying the groundwork for colleagues and fellow students who will follow you. THE RESEARCH INSTITUTES Scholars hosted by a research institute have found that the character of their association with a particular unit is often determined by the kind of work to be done and where that work is to be conducted. Those working in the countryside may have little contact with their urban- based host institution beyond a welcoming banquet and a few visits to the research site. A collaborator from the institute may be assigned to the project, but access to materials and other resources is controlled by the local foreign affairs office. Because local offices often provide interpreters and assistants, the research team is sometimes composed of members from more than one unit; but in such cases, the researcher remains effectively "unitless" and must negotiate directly with bu- reaucratic organizations as the need arises. Researchers who have worked within the confines of an institute have been assigned a counterpart and a team of assistants from the unit who are responsible for making living and working arrangements on behalf of their foreign colleague. If travel is essential to the project, Chinese coworkers take care of the details and at least part of the team accom- panies the foreigner to negotiate with other organizations during the trip. Constant assistance from supportive collaborators not only frees the researcher, often working under a strict deadline, to concentrate on the work at hand but, in the opinion of one returned scientist, is "critical for the success of the project. Without them I would not have been able to complete my work." He advises others to write to their prospective units as soon as an assignment is made with a detailed outline of the research plan, the kind of materials and equipment needed, and the estimated time necessary to complete the project. It is essential that potential problems be identified and resolved early in the process; mis- understandings encountered once the work has begun can be particu- larly difficult to unravel in a situation in which the researcher is dependent on a small group of people with whom he or she must interact on a daily basis.

78 CHINA BOUND Scholars engaged in research in China generally find their hosts will- ing to help in the professional as well as the personal realm, but they stress that effective collaboration and the success of the research project are impossible unless Chinese colleagues understand fully the objective and requirements of the work. Without such an understanding, col- leagues and the sponsoring unit will be unable to meet the researcher's professional needs. Most of the problems that have arisen derive less from antipathy or incompetence than from a failure to understand precisely what is needed by the foreign scholar. Certain problems are, however, endemic to the kind of bureaucratic structure that exists in China. You must always be sensitive to the difficulties and requirements of working within such a system and remember that it is important to avoid statements or actions that might jeopardize future requests. In most cases the foreigner's arrangements for activities outside the danwei, such as travel and housing, are taken care of by the foreign affairs office of the parent organization. For example, a researcher work- ing in one of the institutes under the aegis of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) would negotiate with the academy's foreign affairs officials for most matters of daily and work life. At times, when the foreign affairs office is either unable or unwilling to meet certain demands, it may be possible to ask colleagues within the institute to intervene but you should resort to this selectively. The relationship between the institutes and their umbrella organization is often an un- easy one. The Chinese research institutes have been affected by the country's push toward modernization in several ways. Although some receive funds from the parent academy, most are being encouraged to become self-sufficient. Competition for funds is fierce, and to make up for gaps in funding, many institutes are linking up with industry and other organizations. Some have allowed their personnel to engage in work as consultants. And some institutes have lost their most talented re- searchers to the recently established high-level think tanks that advise government organizations on policy. Like the universities, research in- stitutes have actively pursued links with the outside and have partic- ipated in exchanges. But unlike the universities, the institutes are somewhat less free to engage in their own activities because they still are part of a hierarchy and because they have limited resources for foreigners' research projects. The physical plant of most of the institutes is an indication of the relative poverty of the research units. Even the highest-level institutes under CASS are still housed in poorly main- tained buildings. Personnel complain bitterly about poor-quality food in the canteens, lack of living space, and inadequate housing. Many of the younger research unit personnel have not been formally educated because of the Cultural Revolution and attend special staff

RESEARCH AND STUDY 79 schools. Their potential for study abroad is hindered by lack of prior training, but the institutes are able to send some of the more talented researchers abroad, integrating them, on their return, to the best ad- vantage of the organization. THE RESEARCHER'S EXPERIENCE AN OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH CLIMATE Research schol- ars who have worked in Chinese institutions have learned early on in their stay that no arrangement is predictable, permanent, or self-exe- cuting. For example, even though the research proposals of all students and scholars selected by the Committee on Advanced Study in China were approved by the appropriate Chinese organization and placements were carefully negotiated with host institutions, most researchers soon discovered that the actual implementation of these carefully laid plans required continuous negotiation with their host unit. Some scholars adjusted the scope or character of their project in light of available materials and resources. In the end, the project's success depended in large measure on the researcher's ability to balance relations with Chinese colleagues and with officials intent on safeguarding bureaucratic boundaries and the demands of the project. For such efforts, personal qualities are important a flexible outlook and a reputation for dedi- cation, trustworthiness, and competence are essential for gaining the respect of colleagues. Experience has demonstrated that the willingness of the host institution to support a particular project is largely deter- mined by how the work fits into China's national priorities and the current research program of the unit. Severe shortages of equipment, work space, and trained personnel dictate the allocation of available resources to projects that are relevant to national priorities. This is true of the humanities and social sciences as well as the natural sciences. The foreign scholar is often perceived as the representative of a par- ticular institution a unit, as it were in the U.S. educational system. As such, he or she brings a certain amount of prestige to the host institution and at the same time incurs a "responsibility" to enable people from the host institution to work or study at the researcher's home campus. This positive aspect is balanced by certain negative ones. For example, supporting a foreigner whose project depends on sensitive data or threatens bureaucratic integrity may be seen as setting a prec- edent for future unwanted intrusions. American scientists working on projects in earthquake prediction, cancer research, and nuclear science—all fields that have held a high priority in China despite institutional disruption during the Cultural Revolution have been well received by Chinese colleagues eager to make their own work known to the West. Because of these priorities,

80 CHINA BOUND some Americans have had to tailor their work to fit pre-existing agen- das, but they have also been aided by cooperative and knowledgeable Chinese colleagues and by the high prestige enjoyed by their units. In the fields listed above, Chinese scientists have shared data gen- erously with the expectation that the work will lead to publication in both Chinese and American journals. Researchers in these and other fields have lectured and participated in seminars at the host institute and elsewhere and have found such meetings to be important forums for exchanging information with a wide variety of people in all parts of the country. In addition, field trips with Chinese colleagues have helped bridge gaps between specialists engaged in similar research but with little knowledge of work outside their own unit. For foreign re- searchers who are necessarily working with limited time, the lack of centralized data has been the most serious constraint; equipment prob- lems in some cases also have caused delays. Scientists performing experimental work in institutes in which Chinese researchers have not been able to keep up to date and in which ana- lytical techniques and facilities are inadequate have found their col- leagues willing to help but substantially hindered by a lack of basic equipment and by unfamiliarity with the latest developments in their fields. Language also can pose formidable problems to effective research cooperation. One researcher spent the first week in his unit working with his colleagues to compile a glossary of technical terms so they could sustain conversations related to the project. In this situation the scientist's unanticipated tasks included not only teaching basic English vocabulary but also helping with methodology. Despite the extra time and work involved, the scientist in question felt that the effort was worthwhile not only because he was given access to valuable mate- rials and the project was ultimately successful but also because by helping his colleagues raise the quality of their work, he had contributed to future scientific collaboration. Reports from researchers in China indicate that the success of a pro- ject depends on whether or not it addresses a problem of current interest to China; that is, whether or not it is central to China's drive for rapid modernization. Thus, projects in the field of agricultural economics, plant studies, and architectural engineering, for example, have been enthusiastically received. Success also depends on how well one's Chinese colleagues understand why certain materials and work in the field are necessary to solve the key problem. Important data have been collected and trips to the field effectively organized and profitable, but according to one researcher, his colleagues' enthusiasm for gathering material was directly related to their understanding of why it was necessary. Research in the social sciences and humanities is carried out in re- search institutes organized under CASS and in university departments.

RESEARCH AND STUDY 81 In the 1979-1980 academic year, Americans who worked in these in- stitutions were acutely aware that most of their units' efforts were aimed simply at rehabilitating personnel who were victims of the Cul- tural Revolution and rebuilding their faculty. Some departments were so understaffed that they could not accommodate graduate students, and the presence of foreign scholars added another drain on depart- mental resources. It was important, therefore, that projects that con- tributed to faculty improvement or the departments as a whole received more support than those that were incompatible with ongoing priori- ties. Even today, projects that enhance the intellectual community are received with enthusiasm. And despite the impact of the new opening to the West, many Americans have found themselves the first foreign scholar to be hosted by a unit, and have encountered colleagues who are eager to learn of Western methodologies and topics. In the social sciences and humanities, research in many universities focuses on events and personalities of local importance. (For example, projects on the Boxers conducted at Shandong University, on the 1911 Revolution at Wuhan University, and on the economic history of the Tianjin region at Nankai University, have been warmly received and actively supported.) One researcher points out the advantage of working in a university that is located strategically for a particular topic: The Nanjing University history department seems to wield a great deal of influence nationally and especially in the Jiangnan region. The chief advantage of affiliation with this unit for me was the ease with which I could obtain letters of introduction from my adviser-professor to his former students, old classmates, and colleagues who are now in posi- tions of responsibility in museums, libraries, scholarly publishing houses> and other universities all over the south. (China Exchange News, De- cember 1984, p. 18) The success of a project often hinges on the willingness of individuals to use their connections to help the foreign scholar. Some university departments may be oriented toward a particular historical era rather than toward local interests. Beijing University (Beida) has aided scholars working in Shang and Qin-Han history be- cause its departments are strong in those areas; Beida is also strong on May Fourth literature. Recent experience has shown that working on a widely admired text or literary work can generate enthusiasm from Chinese colleagues. One researcher describes the positive reaction to his project on Hongtoumeng (The Dream of the Red Chamber): The research climate surrounding any work on Hongloumeng is quite open and healthy. The topic commands considerable respect and in- terest on the part of both eminent scholars of the older generation and

82 CHINA BOUND among younger teachers and students as well. The amount of new materials being researched and published these days is a veritable flood, one which contains much very good scholarship. Virtually all the scholars I worked with seemed genuinely interested and receptive to the special concerns and approaches of an outsider working on their own literary heritage. (China Exchange News, June 1986, p. 10) Gaining access to contemporary writers is more difficult, but as a graduate student studying satire in contemporary Chinese fiction points out in China Exchange News, it is possible for the foreign scholar, by virtue of his or her unique status. Reflecting on an analogous situation, the student asks her readers to "Imagine a graduate student from China arriving at the English department at Yale or the University of Chicago and announcing to a professor that she would like to interview several American writers, beginning with Saul Bellow, Kurt Vonnegut, Joseph Helter, and Norman Mailer. I wonder what that professor's reaction would be and what, if anything, would come of the request" (China Exchange News, June 1986, p. 1 11. Yet in China such a request is not seen as extravagant. An American student explains why: "To understand this difference, we must consider such factors as the role of the Chinese writer as public spokesman, Chinese notions of literary criticism and research, the writer's own interest in reaching a world audience, and the privileged status granted to an American doing research in China. The last is a matter of politics and economics; this special status is a political courtesy easy for us to take for granted, yet quite susceptible to change, as history has shown us. It is worth reminding ourselves of this from time to time" (Ibid., p. 1 1~. For a foreign researcher, selecting a suitable department at a Chinese university can be difficult because often there is little concrete infor- mation about faculty and current research efforts. In the first few years of exchanges, historians found literature and philosophy departments better organized than history departments, which were understaffed and still fearful of tackling sensitive historical issues. Recently, how- ever, that trend has changed, and some universities have even formed study groups or centers that approach topics across disciplines. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, American anthropologists and so- ciologists faced particularly difficult challenges in conducting research because their fields had not been active in China for almost 30 years. Moreover, senior Chinese scholars accorded higher priority to rebuild- ing institutions and training a new generation of scholars than to car- rying on research. The CASS Institute of Sociology was established in 1979, and university sociology departments have been set up since then. A major turning point in the renewal of the discipline came when sociology was recognized as a key area of research that should be in- cluded in the Sixth Five-Year Plan adopted in 1982. Thus, a more def-

RESEARCH AND STUDY 83 inite institutional structure and clear-cut economic support have en- hanced the possibilities for Americans to conduct research in this dis- cipline. Similar changes have affected the field of anthropology. A sense of history is already possible when describing the research environment in China. In 1979-1980, after 30 years of broken contracts, American researchers channeled a great deal of energy into simply finding scholars active in their fields. Chinese scholars themselves did not have a clear picture of their intellectual and academic world, for they had lost touch with their own colleagues in the Cultural Revolution years. Recently, however, numerous conferences and less-formal gath- erings have brought scholars together. Not all foreigners have been lucky enough to attend many of these gatherings. For example, an intellectual historian whose topic, heroes and sages in Chinese history, on the surface seems tame enough nonetheless had problems gaining access to conferences. He notes that there still are conservative party bureaucrats who fear scholarly interaction, especially among social science researchers. Scientists on the other hand are welcomed because they possess technological information critical to China's moderniza- tion. Those who have managed to attend conferences are immeasurably helped by them. One scholar reports how a conference opened new research avenues for him, but his comments are even more important as a testimonial to the crucial importance of personal contact with Chinese scholars: . . . without a doubt, the most useful and rewarding aspect of my so- journ to China so far has been the friends and contacts I have made here and elsewhere in the People's Republic. Most of these acquain- tances are scholars I met at the Song History symposium held in Hang- zhou in May 1985. As far as my research work is concerned, the main benefit I have derived from these friends has been information on schol- arly activities related to my research project. Here is just one example: a friend provided me access to a document that listed virtually all of the major research projects currently being undertaken which relate to Song studies (and many other areas as well). As a result of this opportunity, I was able to contact two scholars working on selected aspects of Fan Chengda's travel diaries. Other Song specialists whom I have come to know have provided me with three separate bibliog- raphies, all of which are devoted solely to the Song. I even managed, with the help of a colleague, to get hold of all the papers presented at the "Conference on Song Literature," which was held in Chengdu in September 1985. I should also add that the many conversations and dinners I have shared with the Song scholars at Hangda tHangzhou University] have benefited my research work in no small way. The most significant single change in the research environment has been the revitalization of the Chinese intellectual community and the

84 CHINA BOUND increased openness with which Chinese scholars interact with their counterparts from abroad. Progress is slow and setbacks are still to be expected, but the groundwork for a genuinely international scholarly community is firmly in place. MEETINGS WITH COLLEAGUES Soon after the foreign re- searcher arrives at a Chinese unit, a series of meetings will be arranged to discuss the project in detail. These talks are important for setting the tone of the collaborative effort and for clarifying expectations on both sides. They give the researcher a sense of how the unit views the project and how well it conforms to ongoing research efforts and ex- isting resources. The Chinese side, in turn, forms an impression of the researcher's knowledge of the topic and ability to carry out the project. Veteran researchers urge their successors to be prepared for these dis- cussions with a well-formulated plan in Chinese if possible. The host institution may have received an abstract of the original proposal, but they will want to work out a detailed plan that includes the kind of assistance and travel needed and the costs of the project. Researchers emphasize that when drawing up a plan it is important to state clearly the relationship between the problem and the data and travel needed to address it. They add that once agreements have been made, the foreign scholar should not make arbitrary changes, especially if re- sources and personnel have already been allotted to carry out the work. By the same token, it is important to clarify what services will be provided and at what cost so that the Chinese side has no room for arbitrary changes. Such matters as how travel will be arranged and paid for, how assistants will help, and how they will be paid should all be agreed upon in advance. In addition, if the work will lead to publication, details regarding authorship and where the results will be published should be discussed at the initial meeting with officials. You should also ask about regulations affecting data that will be taken out of the country. One scientist reports that four days before he left China, he was informed that he could not take his data with him unless it was all copied and the unit's only copy machine was broken. Fortunately, just as he despaired of carrying home his hard-won ma- terials, the machine was fixed. Others have had problems with plant and animal specimens and with videotapes. Some scientists have been introduced to their host institute through a series of lectures, and scientists and social scientists alike have been asked to lecture to institute colleagues. These talks can prove useful for both sides: they enable the foreigner to establish his or her creden- tials and research interests while bringing Chinese colleagues up to

RESEARCH AND STUDY 85 date on methodology and the state of the discipline in the West. Chinese scholars are eager for information, and this often prompts them to urge their foreign guests to lecture and present seminars throughout their stay. Both scientists and social scientists have discovered that a great deal is expected of them—lectures, seminars, conference papers, and help with language, technical vocabulary, and methodology all of which can cut drastically into work time. Most Americans agree that you should help whenever possible but that it is important to stress a serious commitment to the completion of the project. WORK SCHEDULES A project work schedule will be agreed upon in the meetings mentioned above, and when you set up a daily schedule or travel plans, be sure to take into consideration the holidays and the personal and work commitments of colleagues. Insisting on working over a holiday, for example, may deprive Chinese coworkers of their only chance for a rest. And many returned researchers comment on the toll on work schedules taken by ill health; it is not at all uncommon for an assistant or coworker on whom you have come to depend to lose time due to illness. Also, the pace of work varies; some foreigners, particularly scientists on short-term visits, have felt overworked while others find the easygoing pace frustrating. As one researcher points out, you must learn to use waiting time creatively. In the institutes, most researchers put in a full 8-hour day (although in some instances it may be as long as 10 hours because of transpor- tation to and from the workplace), five to six days a week. Most re- searchers are given an office or laboratory, which is shared with their coworkers. Lunch is usually followed by a rest period, and many re- searchers are encouraged to return to their hotel for lunch and rest. Others remain at the unit, thereby saving time and expense. The organization of the research team varies, but usually a member of the host unit directs the activity of assistants. Virtually every Amer- ican conducting research in China has expressed gratitude for the com- petence and cooperative spirit of his or her Chinese colleagues. Of the problems that have arisen, most involved interpreters who were not familiar with technical vocabulary. As mentioned earlier, the responsibilities of assistants should be agreed upon by all those involved in the project. Some assistants are assigned mainly to improve their English or to learn from the foreign researcher; often they are extremely willing to help but sometimes lack the expe- rience, stature, or connections to accomplish all they might like to. Be sure to find out how long the assistant will be available. One scientist

86 CHINA BOUND was surprised to learn that his assistant was accompanying him only part of the way on a research trip; the scientist found this out when the assistant was suddenly sent back to Beijing at the scientist's ex- pense! Work schedules tend to be less structured in universities. There you might meet with an adviser once or twice a week or with a group of colleagues for a few hours each day. Most universities do not provide office space, but foreigners who live off campus may be allowed to use a room in the foreign students' dormitory for rest. Some universities set up special reading rooms where foreigners can study and read ma- terials that cannot be removed. WORK-RELATED TRAVEL Many foreign researchers have been able to visit units in other parts of the country to talk with colleagues, exchange information, or attend formally organized seminars and workshops. Some have traveled to the countryside to gather data. To arrange such work-related trips, you must apply to the host unit and state clearly the purpose of your proposed travel; if it is approved, the unit will arrange transportation, lodging, and meetings. A member of the research team usually will accompany you, especially if you do not speak Chinese, but many foreigners also travel alone to conferences and workshops. Experience suggests that the success of the trip depends largely on the host unit's influence with other organizations as well as on who makes the arrangements. One scientist contrasts a very infor- mative trip arranged by a colleague from his unit, who used personal connections to set up meetings, to a far less fruitful visit arranged by unit officials. Association with a unit that has little bureaucratic influ- ence can result in difficulties for Chinese coworkers whose authority may carry little weight with officials in other areas. Work-related travel that takes the foreigner to out-of-the-way places (for instance, remote Buddhist caves or mountaintops) might meet with some resistance; Chinese colleagues often worry about foreigners hav- ing to deal with inadequate accommodations, dangerous transporta- tion, and possible illness in such locations. Most serious scholars manage to convince their hosts that their dedication outweighs their caution, but obviously it is important not to complain about facilities (or the lack of them) when you have been warned. One resourceful scientist, armed with a good guidebook to "traveling on the cheap," was able to persuade her hosts that she really did want to save money and that she could tolerate anything. As a result she saved a significant amount by staying in dormitories most of the time. Procedures for covering travel expenses vary, but in most cases the

RESEARCH AND STUDY 87 foreigner pays all personal transportation and lodging costs. Travel is increasingly expensive. One researcher reported that in March 1985 his expenses totaled about Y150 a day, excluding car rentals and other special expenses. Some units will negotiate a per diem charge while others allow payment in stages. If your spouse accompanies you, most likely he or she will be charged full tourist rates for transportation but will be allowed to stay in your hotel room without charge since room rates in China are not calculated according to the number of occupants. Food costs for spouses can usually be negotiated. If you travel without someone from the unit accompanying you for the entire trip, be prepared for some gaps in communication. One dis- gruntled scientist reports that he was not met at the train at one of his stops and had to lug heavy equipment onto a pedicab to find a hotel. One way to avoid these problems is to ask your local hosts at each stop to telephone ahead to the next host and if possible give you a brief letter of introduction to be used in case of mix-ups. SHORT-TERM ACADEMIC VISITS If patience is the critical character trait for a successful long-term stay in China, stamina and flexibility must rank as equally important for the short-term academic traveler. Reading through the reports of CSCPRC-sponsored distinguished scholars and consultants for the Chinese University Development Project, and judging from the experiences of American scholars who have offered short courses for other academic organizations, it seems that the intense pace characterizing the final month of a long-term stay in China often is replicated in shorter visits. Although the short-term visitor does not have the opportunity to de- velop firsthand experience with the inner workings of professional and personal life in China, many scholars report that precisely because they are not permanent fixtures, Chinese colleagues are more open to frank conversation and serious collaborative work and more willing to help with logistical arrangements. But even with the best intentions on the Chinese side, and elaborate planning and scheduling by the American sponsor, these scholarly visits almost always are marked by last-minute changes, unexpected developments, and missed opportunities. Timing is essential and usually not under your control as an American visitor. For example, the intellectual climate is affected not only by internal rivalries and competition among organizations engaged in sim- ilar activities but also by shifts in political attitudes; all of these can have an impact on your reception. A specialist in history of science noted that just before his arrival in China, Premier Zhao Ziyang called for sweeping reforms of the management of science and technology,

88 CHINA BOUND which were endorsed by the Central Committee. This sequence of events in turn "electrified" the academic communities the scholar encoun- tered, and his visit was noticeably enhanced by such a fortunate con- vergence of events. Alternatively, a negative official attitude toward a particular discipline can have a significant dampening effect. In addition, the time of year is important to consider if you are planning a short-term academic visit. Work tends to slow down in the hottest summer months and in the dead of winter. Some Americans have observed that summer is not a good time for academic business because major Chinese cities are overrun with other foreigners, who strain the resources of Chinese hosting organizations, and are virtually devoid of Chinese scholars, who use the vacation months to travel abroad. A recent visitor, disappointed that many of the Chinese scholars he hoped to meet were out of town, observed: The intellectual dimension of Deng's open door policy means that it has become much more difficult to meet Chinese in China. If no one travels, no one ever meets anyone from a different place. If everyone travels, however, no one also ever meets anyone from a different place except at conferences and in chance encounters at airports. Internal travel in the heavy tourist season (May through October) creates headaches for Chinese hosts and guests alike. Several scholars complained that they were not met at airports nor informed ahead of time about schedules, hotel accommodations, or local travel arrange- ments. Long delays in airports due to weather, mechanical failures, or overbooking of flights also are not uncommon. The most serene reports come from individuals who manage to combine a Taoist philosophy that everything will eventually work itself out with low-key but per- sistent negotiations with Chinese hosts and traveling companions to ensure that an appropriate blend of academic work and tourism can be maintained. PREPARATIONS In general, the most successful short-term visits are the result of careful arrangements with the hosting organization combined with communications with individual Chinese scholars. Itin- eraries, requests for meetings with colleagues, lecture formats, and collaborative arrangements must be worked out well in advance. Goals for the project, as well as meeting and site visit requests, must be presented clearly. If you are going to be lecturing, it is a good idea to ask your host unit for advance information about topics, the probable size and composition of classes, what students or colleagues expect to learn from the lectures, and what kind of interpretation will be pro-

RESEARCH AND STUDY 89 vided. If special equipment is necessary, be sure to inform your hosts; past experience, however, indicates that you should never expect au- diovisual equipment to work. Visits to other organizations in China are too difficult to arrange once the hosting organization assumes responsibility, and they are too com- plex to arrange informally in a short time. Returned scholars therefore urge you to write ahead of time to arrange to meet organizations and individual scholars not associated with the hosting unit. In the words of a recent grantee: "If I had it to do over again, I would invest a lot more time than I did before going to China in specifying exactly what I wanted on my schedule and, most importantly, corresponding directly with those institutions and individuals I wanted to visit, thus avoiding some of the lateral communications problems which existed despite the good intentions of my host." Even with elaborate advance preparations, some fine-tuning of the schedule usually occurs the first working day after your arrival, in consultation with colleagues from the host unit and the foreign affairs officer in charge of your visit. This is the time to point out any potential problems the most common being that too much tourism and not enough substantive academic content has been planned. If you are going to be lecturing, this is a good time to distribute abstracts or outlines, if this has not been done earlier, and to confer with interpreters. SCHEDULES Most scholars returning from short-term visits have remarked that their schedules in China were demanding by any stan- dard. According to reports from a number of lecturers, a month-long stay probably would include a minimum of seven or eight lectures and several informal seminars. The Chinese workday begins around 8 a.m. and ends around 5 or 6 p.m., with a two-hour break from 12 to 2 p.m., although there is word that the noon xiuxi is being phased out in some units. Saturday is a workday in China, and Sunday is usually saved for arranged touring or shopping with colleagues or guides. A typical weekly schedule for a short-term academic visit might look like this: DAY 1: Introduction to work unit and discussion of agenda; evening banquet with colleagues and foreign affairs officers DAY 2: Sightseeing with colleagues or interpreter/guide; informal meal . . In evening DAY 3: Lecture in morning; discussions with colleagues or students in afternoon; preparation of lecture or work with interpreter on translation in evening

90 CHINA BOUND DAY 4: Lecture in morning; lunch with a few colleagues; meeting in afternoon to discuss exchanges; informal dinner with colleagues . . In evening DAY 5: Lecture in morning; seminar in afternoon DAY 6: Sightseeing in morning; shopping in afternoon; appreciation banquet for hosts in evening DAY 7: Depart for in-country travel, accompanied by a representative of the hosting organization Travel schedules are typically lighter on academic time and heavier on touring, although the wear and tear of travel takes its toll. Some scholars have complained that during their visit they had little free time to meet people informally or simply to rest; others suffered from the lack of cultural stimulation. One scientist remarked, "I had little opportunity-to develop any sense of the Chinese people or their daily lives. This was all the more frustrating because I was aware that an incredible number of interesting opportunities existed beyond the walls of the hotel, but since I did not speak Chinese, I was reluctant to strike out on my own without a guide or interpreter." Another scholar who does speak Chinese remarked that his visit was so intense and so richly rewarding personally and professionally that he lost 15 pounds, in spite of too many banquets, and returned home exhausted and elated. Most travelers report that at some point they politely declined to see one more site and instead took a day off to rest, write up notes, or prepare a lecture. LECTURES AND SEMINARS Most foreigners who go to China to give lectures or hold seminars will be assisted by an interpreter. Often, however, interpreters are not professionals in the field and are not familiar with the concepts and vocabulary of the visiting scholar's dis- cipline. Sometimes it is all too obvious that they have been assigned to the foreign scholar for more practice in English and an exposure to methodology. Reports from returned scholars indicate that some in- terpreters were not at all functional in English, a difficult situation for all concerned. In one instance an interpreter solved this problem by ad-libbing the lecturer suddenly noticed that the interpretation was about India when he was in fact talking about Australia! Even if the interpreter knows English, valuable time is often spent explaining the meanings of particular concepts on the spot sometimes with help from the audience which disrupts the smooth, integrated flow of infor- mation. In one case, the audience finally requested that the lecture be delivered in English-- without the "aid" of an interpreter. If you do find yourself lecturing directly in English, speak slowly and clearly; if possible, supplement the talk with outlines and handouts.

RESEARCH AND STUDY 91 According to reports, the best interpreters (that is, if they are willing to take the time and can be spared from other duties) are students who have studied abroad and are familiar with vocabulary and American approaches to their discipline. One scholar reported working in col- laboration with a Chinese-American scientist who served as interpreter, guide, and colleague; this evidently was an extremely fortunate and successful combination. If your interpreter acts as a guide as well, it will soon be evident that a good rapport between the two of you is essential for carrying out daily business. Flexibility, understanding, and patience on your part are crucial; remember that although interpreters/guides may not un- derstand their roles initially, they often grow into them quite success- fully in time. Lectures usually last two to three hours with the final half-hour re- served for questions and discussion. The comments of lecturers on au- dience participation in China vary. Most lecturers report that responses from a Chinese audience are less lively than those from a similar au- dience in the United States. And one senior scholar was quite disheart- ened that his lecture series for graduate students was not well attended; apparently, students were busy with other activities and had no time for a course that was not given for credit. If the school hosting the lecture or seminar wants the course to be graded, you should consult carefully with other teachers, assistants, and interpreters to be certain that any tests are comprehensible to students. For example, one lecturer learned through hard experience that multiple-choice tests are alien to most Chinese students. If lectures are aimed at colleagues and students are present, the stu- dents may be reluctant to ask questions. One scholar suggests that time be allotted for informal discussions with students, who often are eager to talk when they are not inhibited by the presence of senior scholars and officials. Because of unwillingness to express an opinion publicly, or simply out of shyness or respect for the speaker, questions from a Chinese audience often come in writing. Once an exchange has begun, audiences may relax and talk more freely. But, according to one source, asking too many questions of a speaker implies that the lecturer is not competent. Nevertheless, some Americans report that they never found a way to really "break the ice" in the formal lecture setting. Audience size can vary from fewer than 10 close colleagues to over 400 people, some of whom may have traveled long distances for the event. Seminars are sometimes arranged around a seminar table in a classroom or with the speaker and audience seated in overstuffed chairs in a reception room sipping tea. One senior scholar found that what was billed as an informal dinner turned out to be a seminar in which he was expected to present an informal talk on the state of his discipline in the United States. Indeed, curiosity about the state of your field is

92 CHINA BOUND the most predictable trait your Chinese colleagues will display. A lit- erature specialist states that he felt many times as if he were being given a comprehensive predoctoral exam, so intense were the ques- tioners and so wide-ranging the topics. Experience indicates that you should go to China prepared to speak generally about current debates, methodology, and new research in your field. Formal U.S.-China scholarly exchange has now operated for more than seven years, but American academics still find their Chinese col- leagues eager for new information and materials. The best gifts for Chinese friends are materials, new books, and periodicals. Some schol- ars send a boxful of things ahead; others wait until they know what their Chinese counterparts need and send them later. EQUIPMENT Problems with equipment are noted in nearly all re- ports, so you would be well advised not to rely too heavily on visual aids to make a point. One returned scholar remarked that the projectors in his relatively affluent Beijing institute must have come with Marco Polo, and another scholar tells of a projector without a plug that none- theless became usable after his Chinese colleagues plugged the three bare wires in a socket and secured them with toothpicks. According to various reports, slides have been mangled or lost in the insides of these ancient machines. As with all other aspects of work in China, you can only plan ahead, reiterate the importance of the equipment in time for preparations to be made, be patient when the equipment fails to work, and be grateful when it does work. STUDENT LIFE For most foreign students, daily life revolves around a small community of Chinese and foreign friends and classmates, a few linban personnel, and teachers a rather limited world in the opinion of some Americans. Adjusting to this life-style can involve some degree of culture shock. Beverly Hooper, a former exchange student from Australia, aptly de- scribes a typical student reaction to the first sight of a Chinese dor- mitory: "Many an Australian's face has dropped on arrival at the Beijing Languages Institute, when the mystery and vastness of China have suddenly been reduced to a small, concrete-floored room to be shared with either a foreign or Chinese student in a somewhat forbidding, barracks-type gray brick building" ("The Australian-China Student Ex- change Scheme: Could It Be More Effective?" The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, No. 1, p. 1161.

RESEARCH AND STUDY 93 As Hooper points out, however, it is not the Spartan material con- ditions that most students find hard to accept, but the psychological pressures. Even though most linban cadre and teachers are accustomed to the eccentricities of their foreign charges, they still expect, under- standably, a certain conformity to the highly regimented Chinese stu- dent life. Foreign students chafe at rules regarding living quarters, class attendance, travel, and relationships with Chinese friends. Almost every campus requires that Chinese visitors to foreign dormitories register at the door, giving their name and danwei, a practice that the Chinese authorities sometimes maintain is a protection for foreigners but that many foreigners believe is aimed at spotting those who frequent for- eigners' residences too often. Some schools sporadically attempt to impose limited visiting hours for Chinese guests. A student at Fudan University comments on the effect of the rule that Chinese teachers and students could visit the dorm only between 4 and 7 p.m.: "This rule is in effect for all schools in Shanghai with foreign students and is some- times accompanied by very rude treatment on the part of building attendants. This is unfortunate for most Chinese are very loath to visit here." Ironically, serious students sometimes find it less difficult to adjust to Chinese customs than to the habits of other foreigners, many of whom are younger and considerably more carefree than the average American exchange student. One student eloquently describes life in the Shao- yuan Guesthouse at Beijing University, which houses between 250 and 300 foreign students and several foreign experts, researchers, and vis- itors: "Living in small rooms close together and sharing communal facilities means interaction with neighbors who are from all parts of the world. Among the notable customs are the long and involved food preparations frequently beginning with live poultry and animals. Late parties are a multinational phenomenon." He goes on to indicate that foreigners live in a near legal vacuum; linban and dormitory personnel do not intervene actively in problems between foreign students unless requested to do so when the dispute becomes violent. As this student puts it, "Personal foresight and presence of mind together with the Golden Rule are what we effectively depend upon for survival." But he concludes that, fortunately, reason and good will usually prevail, and you can learn a great deal from other foreigners. Other students comment that living with too many foreigners at times slows progress in adapting to Chinese life-styles: When there is a congenial and stimulating group of friends, with a more or less common set of cultural assumptions readily available, getting out regularly, particularly getting out alone can require con- scious effort, especially after the original excitement of being in China wears off and is replaced by the frustrations of being there.

94 CHINA BOUND This student goes on to point out that she and her colleagues must find creative ways to take advantage of living in China "buying a televi- sion, going to performances, movies, and plays with Chinese friends, and most of all travel are enjoyable ways to partake of Chinese culture in China." Conditions for study are less than ideal, partly because of inadequate space in libraries and dormitories and partly because of the disruptions created by spontaneous loud gatherings of foreign students in the eve- nings. However difficult the problems created by close quarters, most foreigners realize early on that their living situation is far better than that of the Chinese students, who live six to eight to a room and at many institutions draw lots each evening for seats in the library. Be- cause most academic institutions are located in the suburbs, tending to the details of everyday life can cut into work and study time sub- stantially. A trip downtown by bicycle or bus for banking and other business can take an entire afternoon. Those accustomed to using the telephone to make appointments, ask questions, or conduct business will learn quickly that in China it is you, not your fingers, that must do the walking. Face-to-face contact is almost always an essential part ~ . . . . . Of any transaction. Students usually must do their own negotiating with the university bureaucracy and make their own arrangements for research, study, and travel. This can be a frustrating exercise, but it is also a useful one. Students often gain insights into Chinese life that allow them to un- derstand the frustrations of their Chinese friends better than foreigners who are protected from the bureaucracy by their status. Although stu- dents may be poorer than other foreigners in material amenities, most consider themselves incomparably richer for the daily opportunity of living within a Chinese environment and mingling naturally and casu- ally with Chinese people. Most American students who have lived with Chinese roommates or have made friends on campus feel that they have been allowed glimpses into intimate corners of Chinese life that would never have been possible without the sustained contact and shared experience of student life. Many American students agree that simply coping with daily life may well be the most frustrating, but in the end, the most valuable part of their experience. Once you have lived in China as a student, you can return again and again; and you will know how to get around on your own and how to negotiate for yourself if the need arises an invaluable legacy of your student days. Students choose to study in China for different reasons. Some advanced students carry on research or combine research with lan- guage work; many others study only the language. According to He Dongchang, vice minister of the State Education Commission, currently there are 2,500 foreign students studying in China, and he predicts

RESEARCH AND STUDY 95 enrollments will double by 1990. Since 1949 a total of 15,000 foreign students have attended universities and institutes; since 1978, an ad- ditional 13,000 have enrolled in short-term courses. Student exchanges have a long history, and Chinese bureaucrats and educators have developed well-defined procedures and attitudes re- garding foreign students. Until 1978 most students were undergradu- ates from Third World countries who spent up to five years in academic programs generally, one year in Chinese-language studies followed by specialized technical programs. Their numbers were supplemented by a small contingent of students from Second World countries (most of the European countries fall into this category) who spent one or two years in language study and/or attended the small number of university courses open to foreigners. A relatively high attrition rate plagued these early programs. The discontent of foreign students then and now is usually manifested by students quietly dropping out of the academic life of the college or university. Absenteeism among foreign students remains high; a class of 13 or so often dwindles to 1 or 2 within a month of the end of term, demoralizing teachers and squelching any incli- nation to regard foreign students as serious scholars. Inadequate lan- guage skills have made university-level classes intellectually unavailable to many students. But many others become so disenchanted with clas- ses that they believe they can learn more outside the classroom. It was problems like these that conditioned the response of the "sys- tem" and individual teachers to the new waves of American students who entered China after normalization of relations with the United States. These students have confronted the Chinese educational system with a wide range of demands and expectations as well as with un- precedented numbers. American students have been fortunate. Their arrival coincided with, and indeed resulted from, a new intellectual climate in China that paved the way for their warm reception. At the same time, that climate precipitated an upgrading of academic stan- dards and new policies for the educational system as a whole. The new, livelier academic climate has benefited Americans in many ways. Along with the new openness, however, came a more rigid articulation of the regulations governing foreign students (see Appendix B). Foreign students can now earn master's and doctoral degrees in some Chinese institutions. But most will fall into one of three other catego- ries: (1) undergraduates (liuxuesheng) those whose purpose is to ob- tain a degree from a Chinese university and who will remain in China for four to six years; (2) general advanced students (jinxiusheng) stu- dents who intend to pursue coursework in a special field while in China and who have finished at least two years of undergraduate study in that field; and (3) senior advanced students (gaoji jinxiusheng) those who have at least the equivalent of a Chinese master's degree or are

96 CHINA BOUND candidates for doctorates in their home country and who will study independently under the direction of Chinese tutors for a period of one year. All students except those in the senior advanced category are expected to attend classes; only those in the senior advanced category can expect to be assigned tutors. The opening of several institutions and disciplines to foreign students in 1979 was coupled in many units with a more rigid application of rules governing attendance, examinations, and travel. These policies were designed to raise standards and correct a laissez-faire attitude toward academic work, but they were not compatible with the needs of advanced graduate students more intent on pursuing dissertation- level research than on gaining basic knowledge in the classroom. More- over, in 1979-1980, Chinese universities were not equipped to provide graduate-level training for many of their own students, much less for foreigners. Now more than 70 colleges admit foreign students and stu- dent researchers, and many of these are upgrading their graduate stud- ies. The environment also is more conducive to research, and students have accomplished a great deal that has directly enhanced their grad- uate work. But frustrations abound, for students cannot be assured of anything and must find their own means to impress their hosts. Many students still combine some classroom work with independent research and fieldwork. As the level of teaching improves generally in univer- sities and colleges, and as younger, more dynamic scholars are brought into positions of prominence in Chinese education, foreigners will con- tinue to reap the benefits. Changes in Chinese attitudes toward foreign students are difficult to measure. Students who study overseas, whether in Western Europe or Asia, often are not seen as genuinely part of the academic community. China is no different, and many recent reports from graduate students mention the problems of being taken seriously by Chinese advisers. One woman states that the teachers at Beida (Beijing University) regard students in general as "difficult and immature." She elaborates: My adviser told me with remarkable candor that when there was a foreign student attending one of his classes in fiction, he would talk to the student and ask him or her to read one of the stories required for the course. If at the end of the semester the student could repeat the basic plot for him, he gave a passing grade. This lack of enthusiasm and respect for foreign students is one that a student with more serious purpose and specific goals to accomplish should be prepared to work against. Older Chinese scholars on the other hand, whose memories reach back to days of cooperative scholarship or study abroad, will often accept a foreign student with more eagerness and less reserve than he would show toward his own colleagues. Thus a foreign student needs to be prepared to accept that she is far more what she represents than who she is while in China.

RESEARCH AND STUDY 97 Another woman points out that the female student faces more bar- riers in developing a student-mentor relationship with a male professor than does a male counterpart. She reports that her hosts usually took great pains to produce female companions or assistants to serve as intermediaries or chaperones. "At first I resented the intrusion," she writes, "but now I think it was unrealistic for me to expect to have a direct adviser-advisee relationship given the present social conventions so I tried to develop better relationships with the woman who had been dragooned into 'helping' me." She adds that the pattern has been re- peated in other academic settings in other Asian countries where women have little visible power in the academic establishment. Diligence usually pays off, however. Another female student who specializes in literature had to contend with the attitude that foreigners, particularly Westerners, can never truly appreciate in depth the Chinese literary tradition. But, she adds, for all the differences in approach, the bond that develops between scholars working on similar ancient texts- the shared sense that only a few scholars in the modern world care about these works creates an environment conducive to communi- cation: "Older professors, if skeptical of our competence, are openly moved by the devotion they perceive in one who has acquired their language and then traveled so far to join them in their studies. Thus, they may go to great lengths to encourage and facilitate research." Despite difficulties and stalemates, American students in the past seven years have had remarkable success in their research. Students have worked on archeological digs, traced the footpaths of the ancient poets, joined opera troops, lived with minority peoples, labored in silk factories, mined the Ming-Qing archives, recorded Taoist performances on site, and presented papers at conferences; but most importantly, many have forged lasting ties with Chinese advisers and fellow students. If one important lesson has been learned from the student experience, it is that no matter what the regulations or how they change, individual students must build a personal reputation for perseverance and pro- ficiency before they can hope to receive active institutional support. As one very successful graduate student in anthropology observed in ret- rospect: "The first semester was a period of 'feeling out' how to go about getting my research done including interviews at factories and trips to libraries. For my Chinese counterparts, the first half of the year was a time to find out whether they could trust me." Students do not enter the Chinese professional world blessed with a status that guarantees respect. Their gains are worked out on a case- by-case basis that does not ensure that similar privileges will be ex- tended to future students. Attitudes change slowly in China, and foreign students' successes will probably continue to be determined by their own ability to work through the system, by the kind of unit in which they must work, and by the nature of their demands. ,,_. a.

98 CHINA BOUND INITIAL MEETINGS WITH TEACHERS AND ADVISERS Soon after arriving on campus, foreign students receive a general introduc- tion to their institution and its rules and regulations. They then usually meet individually with linban and departmental representatives to dis- cuss class schedules and specific requests. Some graduate students have been asked to submit an outline of their dissertation proposal in Chinese before an adviser is assigned. Others have worked with a tutor for a time before handing in a detailed proposal. Experienced students and researchers stress that when drafting a proposal it is essential to state clearly the relationship between the topic and any requests you may be making for materials, tutorials, and travel. Because foreign students must depend on teachers to help gather materials and facilitate re- search, it is important that they present their research plan thoughtfully in these initial meetings. It is a good idea to take copies of your own published work, major papers, and bibliographies to establish credi- bility and define the level at which you hope to proceed. If you prepare a plan early in your stay and insist on beginning library work and other scholarly activities from the beginning, your advisers can hardly fail to be impressed with your seriousness of purpose. As one student at Beijing University states, "You may be one of over 200 foreign students in your department and you must distinguish yourself as worthy of help." Establishing yourself is only the beginning of the process of devel- oping a productive working rapport with an adviser. Language prob- lems generally loom large and can assume even greater dimensions when the teachers speak a dialect. And there are other, less easily de- fined issues as well. A student of classical literature reports: There is more to communication than speaking a common language. A second, more subtle and persistent problem was that of establishing my credibility as a student of Chinese literature. During the initial stage of our discussions I was anxious to convey my own approach to the text, while my advisers had not yet been convinced of my grounding in the rudiments of the field. In fact, my struggle to describe ideas quite alien to them only served to obscure their perception of what I actually understood. Even worse, it provided no common ground of discussion by which I might benefit from their knowledge. (China Exchange News, June 1986, p. 2) This student switched to asking more direct specific questions related to the texts themselves and began to make progress. Once a working vocabulary was established, topics of common interest began to emerge. Other students mention the difficulties of finding common ground for their work with advisers. Many have found that focusing on broad topics and bibliography rather than on methodology is a compromise that can make the most of time spent with an adviser. And searching for a

RESEARCH AND STUDY 99 common range of interests yields better results than trying to mold sessions using a preconceived notion of what should transpire. Students remind their successors to be sensitive also to teachers' work schedules and holidays and to expect that schedules may be interrupted by travel or ill health. In fact, many student reports mention the ill health of their Chinese colleagues as a factor in losing work time. COURSEWORK There is no formal registration process for foreign students attending Chinese institutions. Ideally, new students are in- formed of offerings by linban or departmental personnel who handle any necessary paperwork, but sometimes students complain that they are not informed of the full range of courses available. There are few Western-style college catalogs in China, and many students learn of course offerings only through the student grapevine. Check the bulletin board in your department to see what courses are listed, and ask your Chinese friends what is being offered in a given term. Be aware too that not all courses are open to foreigners. Most universities allow foreign students to move between departments when choosing courses, but they do not encourage them to change their departmental affiliation once a commitment to a particular discipline has been made. It is important to have some prior knowledge, if possible, of the best de- partment for your topic. An anthropologist, for example, found no an- thropology counterparts in her university; she affiliated instead with an economics department with some success. The fall semester in China begins in early September in most uni- versities, and the spring term begins in late February or early March after the month-long spring holiday that follows Chunjie (Lunar New Year). Most classes are scheduled in two-hour segments beginning at 7:30 a.m. and meet two or three times a week. Some graduate courses meet once a week for two to three hours in much the same fashion as a seminar. But the content of many courses, even those for graduate students, is often not advanced enough for the taste of many American students. One graduate student reports that the professor read from textbooks and assigned no outside reading, allowing questions only during the 5- to 10-minute break in the middle of the class. Grades depend on either a long research paper or, in some cases, a final ex- amination (exams are sometimes handed out ahead of time). Some professors test foreign students orally or not at all. Faithful attendance is mandatory if you want to establish a good relationship with a pro- fessor, because teachers in China view cutting class as a personal af- front. Once you make a commitment to a class, you should fulfill it. Classes are usually conducted in "rapid unadulterated Mandarin" or in a dialect unintelligible even to some Chinese students. Few conces- sions are made for foreign participants beyond the occasional repetition

100 CHINA BOUND of terms or use of the blackboard. One American graduate student who considers himself fluent in Chinese described note-taking as a "har- rowing experience." Some courses have textbooks; others do not. Stu- dents have varying opinions about the worth of their texts. Archeologists, for example, have discovered that the informally produced mimeo notes for class often contain valuable new information that is a long way from being published. A common complaint of students is that Chinese professors are either unfamiliar with Western literature or woefully out of date; thus, courses are not "on target" for their particular interests. Most American students avoid the classes for foreigners only because they are aimed at foreigners studying for undergraduate degrees in China who have little background in Chinese studies. But the classes that professors design for their own students offer interesting insights into how particular disciplines are studied in China, as well as the chance to become acquainted with Chinese professors and graduate students. FIELDWORK AND TRAVEL Relatively few American students have been able to conduct genuine fieldwork, but many have traveled ex- tensively, establishing informal contacts along the way. Some students have been given permission to travel to-out-of-the-way places, either alone or accompanied by Chinese students or advisers; and some have been successful in collecting data—for example, on folk music and Taoist liturgical practices. Some also have traveled with their Chinese classmates on school trips. Others, however an economist, for ex- ample found the constant presence of an overbearing and jealous ad- viser a real hindrance. Some students astutely observed that they had far more freedom and resources to travel than many of their Chinese teachers could hope for. Student travel is generally much less expensive than tourist travel, especially on school-arranged trips for which hard-class train accom- modations and student dormitories are used. Whenever possible, buses are used, but if a project demands a journey that is inaccessible by public transport, a car and driver sometimes will be hired. Occasionally illness mars these trips. In one case a student was warned that con- ditions would be less than comfortable and insisted on going on a school trip only to become seriously ill with dysentery along the way. In a number of instances, students have been able to travel widely, sometimes to areas not normally open to foreigners; these travels have been accomplished with the help of or, occasionally, in spite of their foreign student office. A student who traveled to the sites important in the poetry of the famous Tang poet Li Bai received extraordinary co- operation and reports an unforgettable trip:

RESEARCH AND STUDY 101 In both Anhui and Zhejiang, each town provided me with at least one well-prepared local expert, either an historian, gazeteer researcher, or member of the local "cultural station." In cases where transportation to a given site was difficult, a jeep or a boat was put at my disposal for the trip. The flexibility of my hosts made it possible to take advan- tage of opportunities for impromptu interviews with villagers who would recount (and sometimes debate) their versions of Li Bai's life as it was lived in their village. Not all students are so fortunate to have a topic that captures the imagination of such a wide variety of people. But the possibilities for this kind of informal contact are far greater for students than for other foreigners and are one of the most enjoyable aspects of the student status. LANGUAGE STUDY Some advanced students elect to take lan- guage classes at the university; others opt for making their own ar- rangements with a tutor or trade English lessons for practice in Chinese. Complaints about language classes are common. Many students are disappointed in the lack of rigor, the prevalence of lecturing rather than drilling, and in general the paucity of opportunities to practice the language creatively. As one student notes, teachers often do not take their foreign charges seriously enough to correct their mistakes. Many students have noticed that upper-level translation classes are usually better than lower-level conversation classes. If you plan to work with a tutor, it is a good idea to take some texts and tapes along to help structure the class. Your tutor may have no training in teaching the language but may be quite willing to follow a plan and to use materials suitable for your interests. One student practiced reading handwritten Chinese and writing business letters as well as developing her reading comprehension in her own field. Reading a classical text line by line with a tutor who knows the literature can be a very re- ~. . warming experience. Some students trade English lessons for Chinese lessons, a less than ideal situation but sometimes the only way to practice informal con- versational Chinese. As in work with a tutor, you must be prepared to organize your time with your language partner. Watching a television program or movie and then using the new vocabulary and theme as a focus for language practice is one method of mixing class time with leisure time. A word of caution, however: be sure that you receive as much time in Chinese language training as you give in English. Chinese who are trying to learn English are remarkably persistent when they have a native speaker with whom to practice.

102 CHINA BOUND Many Americans lament that immersion in Chinese is hard to manage at universities with large numbers of foreigners. As one student puts it: "Oddly enough, coming to China may not be the optimal method for improving Chinese language skills. Not only is one subjected to periodic unannounced arrivals of unknown Chinese students or teachers who need help filling out U.S. university application forms, but the language predominately used in the foreign student dorm and cafeteria is almost invariably English. Even the Russians are more eager to speak English than Chinese." This observation illustrates a common dilemma for foreigners, many of whom are approached to teach English in part- time schools and the like. You must find a happy compromise between demonstrating sympathy for and a desire to help Chinese people in their quest for better English-language skills and fulfilling your own purpose for living in China. According to Chinese educators, language students make up the bulk of foreign students in China, and efforts are being made to increase enrollments in Chinese-language courses. Several Chinese universities accept students directly and others set up programs in cooperation with an American college or university. Choosing a suitable program for your particular goals will involve some investigation; check with the foreign study adviser or Asian studies faculty at your home institution. A useful guide to language study in China has been compiled by Jesse Parker and Janet Rodgers for the Yale-China Association (A Guide to Living, Studying and Woric~ng in the People's Republic of China and Hong Kong, rev. ea., New Haven, Conn.: Yale-China Association, January 19861. Parker and Rodgers point out that there are positive and negative aspects of both types of programs. The student who elects to study language in a program administered by the Chinese must secure applications from the Chinese Embassy and then send the application directly to the particular Chinese school. Experience indicates that students are not necessarily guaranteed a place in the institution they have selected. These programs have the advantage of being much less costly than the U.S.-Chinese cosponsored programs, but because there is no intermediary U.S. administrator to consult, you will have to negotiate for yourself on most issues. Many students find this situation frustrating, especially those who have not yet acquired the language skills to function independently. But students who have arranged their own study find that they mingle more natu- rally with the Chinese community and that their confrontations and successes with the bureaucracy are valuable learning experiences. Cosponsored programs are more costly, but they offer students the advantage of applying through a U.S. institution and working with an American resident director in China. It is difficult to evaluate these programs because they are constantly in flux as Chinese teachers come

RESEARCH AND STUDY 103 and go and U.S. administrators move in and out of the organization. Some programs have maintained good reputations consistently while others do not live up to the promises in their brochures. It is a good idea to talk with other students who have studied in China, to seek advice from your Chinese-language teacher if possible, and to call the program director for specific information. Be sure to ask about travel arrangements to and from China, whether a trip within the country is included in the fees, how credits are granted and transferred, and whether a content course taught by an American professor is planned. Some cosponsored programs have managed to develop a language curriculum suited to the needs of American students, but the degree to which any outside force can influence the Chinese philosophy of teaching is lim- ited. Eventually, students must adjust to Chinese methods of language teaching if they are to make the most of their studies in China. Some difficulties arise because Chinese-language teachers believe for- eign students should acquire all the skills of language learning speak- ing, writing, reading, and aural comprehension—simultaneously. Language classes are organized to include reading (hanyu or yuedu), conversation practice (huibna or konyu), listening comprehension (tingli), and composition exercises (xiezuo). Regular examinations cover prog- ress in all four skills (sihui). Most American students have not been as adequately prepared in speaking as in writing and reading, and the most commonly voiced complaint centers on their frustration at not learning practical, everyday vocabulary fast enough to become func- tional in Chinese while in China. Teaching Chinese to foreigners is a new field in China that is only slowly gaining legitimacy. Many Chinese are not trained to teach the language, and most are unfamiliar with the drilling, creative conversation, pattern drills, and language labs that make up an American program. Often the materials used in China do not mesh with those students have used in the United States, and most language programs must incorporate students with widely vary- ing backgrounds, a serious problem for many Chinese teachers. Most intensive programs schedule between 16 and 24 class hours each week, usually in the mornings from 8 a.m. to noon. Afternoons are used for excursions in and outside of the city, for study, and for special coaching (fuduo). Classes usually concentrate on a set text, which the teacher and the students read repeatedly and then memorize and ana- lyze. Many Americans have observed that students are expected to play a rather passive role in the teacher-student relationship. Creative use of language is not encouraged nor is genuine dialog between teacher and students. Materials often are not adequate, but a good teacher will respond to students' suggestions and make an effort to find relevant, interesting materials. Students should remember, however, that their teachers work within a fairly rigid bureaucracy and that their power

104 CHINA BOUND to implement change is very limited. Teachers usually work as part of a team and are expected to use only approved materials; they also work under the close supervision of departmental authorities. Examinations are often prepared by a committee of teachers who work at the same level all first-year teachers are part of a team, for example and are designed to test progress in absorbing materials presented in the basic texts. Chinese teachers complain that American students are often casual about cutting classes and that a single class usually brings together students with very different skills and motivation. Many teachers have little experience with the methodology and materials used in the United States and become as frustrated as their students at the difficulties of adjusting time-honored methods to the needs and backgrounds of Amer- ican students. On the other hand, most Chinese teachers feel responsible for all aspects of their students' lives and visit them in the dormitory, worry when they are unhappy or ill, and offer extra help for those having problems in class. Some Americans find this attention suffocating, but most feel genuine affection and respect for their dedicated, hardworking Chinese instructors. ACCESS TO MATERIALS Policies in China governing access to libraries and archives vary as do individual experiences with certain libraries. Your status, work unit, research topic, and approach to problems all determine the limits to access as much as do the particular policies of the library you hope to use. There are more than 200,000 libraries in China, including the na- tional library in Beijing: 1,732 public libraries; 700 college and uni- versity libraries; 100,000 middle school and elementary school libraries; 1,000 scientific and specialized libraries; and 110,000 trade union li- braries. Detailed descriptions in Chinese and English of Chinese and foreign books and periodicals along with addresses of important li- braries can be found in the Directory of Chinese Libraries (Beijing: China Academic Publishers, 19821. (This information comes from a very useful article by Chi Wang of the Library of Congress, "An Overview of Li- braries in the People's Republic of China," China Exchange News, Sep- tember 1984.) Foreign scholars probably will use only a few of these libraries; yet reports indicate that gaining entry to heretofore untested libraries is continuing. A few guidelines for library use follow. They have been gleaned from reports, published and unpublished, of scholars who have conducted research in Chinese libraries and archives. One conclusion that applies generally is that library work is time- consuming in China. Advance preparation can be of great help in cutting down some of the time lost in bureaucratic maneuvering once you are

RESEARCH AND STUDY 105 on site. One researcher remarks that a search for a book that would take 20 minutes in the United States can take up to two weeks in a Chinese library. He advises that you read all the secondary literature available before going to China. Many Chinese libraries do not have workable catalogs or do not make them available to foreign scholars so you must be prepared to ask for particular holdings. Fortunately, there is a growing literature on the kinds of materials available and reference guides for further information, all of which can be of great use in preparing to work in China. Researchers have also found it useful to have on hand a summary of their topic in Chinese and the kinds of materials needed for its inves- tigation. The summary can be presented to library staffs or helpful colleagues in China. One successful researcher gave a talk about his work and the materials he needed to a group of scholars who then offered to help him informally by lending their own collections. Good personal relations with colleagues are as important in gaining access to materials as in other aspects of scholarly life. And by no means are important written resources confined to libraries. Americans have dis- covered that the rich mine of unpublished material relevant to their field can be tapped only through personal contacts with Chinese col- leagues. A linguist remarks: "There is simply no substitute for direct personal contacts with one's academic colleagues in China. In my field there exists a vast quantity of unpublished field material on dialects of every corner of China and the only way to obtain access to this valuable storehouse of data is through personal contacts." A reputation for seriousness and diligence also pays off with library personnel who may be bound by regulations but often are willing to bend them for the deserving individual. A researcher who worked in the National Library in Beijing found that his initial request for ma- terials relevant to his topic was quickly accepted. He goes on to add, however, that he met with reluctance when he stepped outside these initial limits: Only when I began to ask for more and more materials not directly connected with my original topic did the hold-ups begin. Since the materials in my field do not involve much in the way of sensitive or controversial topics, any difficulties I had did not amount to much more than bureaucratic inertia of the kind not totally unknown in our own institutions. I managed to overcome these difficulties in the Beijing library through the sheer passage of time, as the library staff gradually became convinced that I was no troublemaker, and began gradually to regard me as a daily fixture in their domain. (China Exchange News, June 1986, p. 9) Two additional points are made in this account: (1) scholars in a hurry will be frustrated by the slow pace in which newcomers are accepted and books delivered, and (2) requests for books outside the

106 CHINA BOUND original list presented may create problems. Most scholars have dis- covered important materials only after working for some time in a facility, and most have also had to convince library personnel that these were indeed genuinely relevant to the project at hand. Chinese cate- gories for arranging knowledge are sometimes quite different from those accepted in the West. Again, advance information, not only about the materials in a library but about their classification, can be of great use in presenting requests. Your work in a library may be slowed down by several factors. Often, collections and reading rooms are separated, sometimes in different parts of a city. In some cases, books or periodicals must be ordered as much as a week in advance. Photocopying facilities, if available, usually are limited. At the Beijing University Library, for example, only 30 sheets at one time can be copied, and the turnaround time is at least two days. String-bound books and most pre-1800 materials may not be photocopied, although in some libraries they may be microfilmed. Usu- ally, however, microfilm readers must be reserved in advance. Research assistants to help with transcribing materials by hand may not be admitted in many facilities. Many libraries are being renovated and books cataloged in an effort to improve facilities that were at best neglected and at worst actively destroyed in the Cultural Revolution years. Some libraries will not be usable for years, and you should check ahead before planning a research visit whose success hinges entirely on using particular collections. Also, some libraries do not allow their old books to circulate during the hottest months of the summer. Many scholars associated with universities have found departmental libraries useful, especially for periodicals and secondary works, al- though other treasures may be found in them a fine collection of stele rubbings exists in the history departmental library at Nanjing Univer- sity, for example. Catalogs in these smaller collections usually are or- derly and complete. Access to materials is determined by the host danwei, which secures privileges within its own boundaries and negotiates with other danwei. Scholars who have been affiliated with nonacademic units have at times had difficulty obtaining permission to work in libraries. Foreigners placed in a university or research unit are issued library cards that must be presented when requesting books. Only certain books non- sensitive secondary works, for example may be taken out, and then the quantity is usually limited. Rare books are handled with care and generally may be read only in certain areas of the library. Those for- eigners affiliated with CASS may have little trouble gaining access to the libraries of the various CASS research institutes. But someone in a university might have more trouble using CASS libraries simply be- cause the necessary connection for use must be made between auton-

RESEARCH AND STUDY 107 omous danwei. Similarly, in some cases students and research scholars in universities have been able to use municipal libraries after producing a letter of introduction from the foreign affairs office of their host unit; others have had to be personally introduced to library staff. In some cases these bureaucratic barriers simply could not be crossed. Museum and factory libraries also have presented problems for some scholars. The use of archives, such as the No. 1 Archive in Beijing housing the documents of the Qing dynasty, is a special art. Strict rules that are given to the newcomer govern the use of these facilities, which have only gradually opened to foreigners. A graduate student who success- fully used the No. 1 Archive proves that status is not the only deter- minant of access. He advises researchers to do the following: cultivate a relationship with the primary person assigned as a go-between, re- frain from asking for complete collections, make it clear that any mi- crofilmed materials are for personal use only, and keep any special privileges that have been allotted to yourself. The primary expert on the No. 1 Archive, Prof. Beatrice Bartlett at Yale University, has written extensively on its history and materials. She points out that the history of the Qing archives has taken a different turn from that of many earlier finds of documents, which are now housed outside China: "The Ch'ing archives were saved for the Chinese, to be developed by the administrative vision and genius of Chinese curators. Foreigners are welcome, but as readers, not owners of the documents" (Times Literary Supplement, July 4, 1986, p. 734~. In another essay, Prof. Bartlett offers advice about using this unique library that could well apply to any situation in China. After noting that map files are closed from view, she observes: The situation is constantly changing, however, and frequently one is gratified when a curator's generosity is employed to prevail over a narrow interpretation of the rules. In view of the fact that the materials in all Chinese archives are magnificent, offering much to the scholar willing to search, patient submission to the rules while at the same time quietly attempting to negotiate improved terms is a worthwhile posture, likely eventually to produce desired results. ("Archive Mate- rials in China on United States History," pp. 504-506 in Guide to the Study of United States History Outside the U.S., 1945-1980, vol. 1, ed. by Lewis Hanke, White Plains, N.Y.: Kraus International Publications, 1985)

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This comprehensive, highly readable handbook simplifies the sometimes complex aspects of day-to-day life in China. Based on the experience of Americans who have recently studied, done research, and taught there, China Bound gives the invaluable "inside" information that only those who have been there can provide. Written primarily for students, scholars, and teachers, the book describes Chinese academic life and work and how Americans can fit into it. And, because it covers such a broad spectrum of topics--from customs regulations, taxation, and medical care to hotel life and how to get laundry done--China Bound is also must reading for anyone who is already planning or just trying to decide whether to plan an extended visit to China. Academic Library Book Review states, "China Bound is one of those books that is absolutely essential."

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