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OCR for page 44
IV. SOM13 TRENDS IN TRAINING AND UTILIZATION
The Committee's staff and consultants have launched a number of
studies, following the recommendations made in the report of the feasi-
bil~ty study. It has not been possible for the Committee and its Panels
to review these studies more than briefly, much less to assess their
significance and assimilate the results into their work. Such fuller
development must be left to the next stage of the continuing study.
Nevertheless, data on trends in training and utilization in biomedical
and behavioral research areas have already emerged and seem significant
enough to be included here.
GRADUATE ENROLLMENTS AND STUDENT SUPPORT
First-year graduate enrollments in the biomedical and behavioral
sciences rose from roughly 15,000 in 1960 to 47,000 in 1974, an average
annual growth rate of 8.6 percent (TABLE 4~.
Each broad field has exhibited different growth patterns. The
basic biomedical sciences have shown the steadiest growth of all the
fields, rising from 7,000 to 22,000 students from 1960 to 1974. However,
its annual growth has slowed. In the years from 1968 to the present,
the annual average rate of growth was 7.0 percent compared to 9.9 per-
cent in earlier years.
The changes in growth rates in the behavioral sciences are much
more pronounced than in the basic biomedical sciences. Here the average
annual growth rate was 12.4 percent from 1960 to 1968 and only 3.6 per-
cent thereafter. Furthermore, there were absolute declines in first-year
enrollments from 1970 through 1973 in the disciplines of anthropology,
sociology, and psychology (except in 1970-71~.
It is difficult to find reliable data for the clinical sciences
and health services research. Because most researchers in the clinical
sciences are M.D.'s with postdoctoral training, enrollments in graduate
programs are a poor and misleading indicator of clinical researchers in
training. In health services research, most graduate enrollments are in
terminal masters programs, e.g., in public health and hospital
44
OCR for page 45
TABLE 4 First-Year Graduate Enrollments2 In All Graduate
Departments, by Selective Field, 1960-1973
(l,OOO's)
Basic Biomedical Behavioral
Year3 Science Science_
1960 7 0 7
1961 7.7 8.0
1962 8.2 8.7
1963 9.7 10.4
1964 11.8 11.8
1965 12.7 13.0
1966 14.2 15.2
1967 14.9 17.9
1968 14.9 19.6
1969 16.3 22.2
1970 17.2 26.3
1971 18.3 25.5
9721- 18.8 24.0
73l 19.5 22~4
74l 22.4 24.2
Annual Average Rates of Growth
1960-74 8.7 8.6
1960-68 9.9 12.4
1968-74 7.0 3.6
Estimates based on NSF data for 1971-74.
2Both full-time and part-time students.
3Fall enrollment for that academic year.
Source: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National
Center for Education Statistics, Students Enrolled for Ad-
vanced Degrees, Annual Reports 1960-71.
45
OCR for page 46
administration. Hence, enrollments in this area are also unrepresenta-
tive of those being trained for research careers. For these reasons,
enrollments in these areas are not included here.
There are also significant field differences in the pattern of
federal support of graduate students. Of the 164,000 graduate students
in the 1973 survey of the sciences and engineering by the National Sci-
ence Foundation, over 65,000 were in the basic biomedical, behavioral,
and clinical sciences. As one might expect, the basic biomedical and
clinical sciences rely more heavily upon federal support (30 percent
and 41 percent, respectively) than the behavioral sciences (22 percent)
and in fact their reliance exceeds that for all fields (26 percent)
HEW and its components, NIH/ADAMHA20
(TABLE 5~. Of the federal sources, _ _ _ .
are clearly predominant, with HEW accounting for 18 percent of all science
students supported (i.e., providing their major source of support) and
65 percent of all science students supported by federal funds.
Support for graduate students in these areas is quite diverse,
however. Non-federal support still makes up the largest share (over 70
percent) of major sources of support. Institutional support accounts
for roughly 40 percent of all students in these fields. 21 Self-support,
including students' own funds, loans, and family support, is also sub-
stantial as a percentage of major sources of support. It is highest for
the behavioral sciences (32 percent), apparently compensating for the
lesser volume of federal support in this area.
It should be noted, however, that while federal support makes up
the lesser part of total support in the biomedical and behavioral sciences,
it is of greater importance to the development of the most talented re-
search personnel. Research fellowships, traineeships, and assistant-
ships are heavily subsidized by the federal government. Hence, the fact
that teaching assistantships, largely concentrated in state universities,
and self support make up the greater part of overall support should not
cloud the Importance of the federal role in training research manpower.
The support of basic biomedical and behavioral science graduate
students is further elucidated by noting the type of support or kind of
20ADAMHA is not included in NIH data in TABLE 5. This explains why the
percentage of support for behavioral sciences may look low under NIH.
It is included within total HEW support.
21 It should be kept in mind, however, that much institutional support
is actually unrestricted state aid to public institutions.
46
OCR for page 47
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OCR for page 48
appointment received as the major source of support. All of the fields
related to this study have a high concentration of fellowships and train-
eeships relative to all fields. Over 25 percent of the basic biomedical
and behavioral science students are supported by fellowships and train-
eeships (TABLE 63. A substantial number of basic biomedical students
also receive their support in the form of research assistantships;
however, behavioral and clinical science students receive much less of
their support in this form (12 percent and 9 percent). The importance
of federal support for both fellowships and traineeships, and especially
for research assistantships, explains the high concentration of federal
support in the basic biomedical sciences. Conversely, the much smaller
amount of federal research done in the behavioral sciences explains
their lesser volume of research assistantships and federal support.
The overwhelming concentration of the clinical sciences support in
fellowships and traineeships especially postdoctoral- opposed to minor
support for participation in research assistantships may be explained by
the historically greater utilization of the training mechanism in
clinically oriented programs. Further, the absence of undergraduate
clinical programs means that proportionately fewer such students are
engaged as teaching assistants although clinical science fellows and
trainees do engage to a considerable extent in bedside teaching. Basic
biomedical and behavioral sciences, on the other hand, have under-
graduate courses and, thus, their Graduate students are actively engaged
in teaching undergraduates.22
The "other types of support" category, which is to a considerable
extent composed of self-support, is also a major source of support to a
substantial number of students- over 30 percent in the basic biomedical
and behavioral sciences. As one would suspect, the behavioral sciences
have the highest concentration in this area due to lesser access to
federal support.
Ph.D. OUTPUT 1961-74
In this section, we examine the trends in the production of b~o-
medical/behavioral Ph.D.ts. Since these Ph.D.'s constitute most of the
pool of basic biomedical/behavioral researchers (the others are M.D.'s),
the trends in Ph.D. production have important implications for future
trends in the supply. Not all Ph.D.'s become researchers; many perform
22It should be noted that public institutions, through state funds, offer
more teaching assistantships than do private institutions.
48
/
OCR for page 49
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OCR for page 50
teaching and administrative duties exclusively, while with others
research is a secondary activity. As expected, the number of Ph.D.'s
entering research depends on the amount of funds allocated to research
and development activities. As the growth in R and D funds slows, fewer
research positions become available to the new Ph.D.'s, who therefore
seek other jobs. Conversely, increases in R and D funds generate addi-
tional positions for researchers.
The pool size cannot be increased quickly. Ph.D. output responds
slowly to changes in demand because of the average time lag of seven
years from the B.A. to the Ph.D. It is questionable how effectively the
supply can be increased by drawing from the pool of nonactive researchers.
Those who have not done research for a few years may quickly lose contact
with the latest techniques and developments and may find it difficult to
become proficient researchers again without retraining. Here postdoctoral
training plays an important role, but response again is not instantaneous.
From 1961 to 1971, the output of Ph.D.'s in the biomedical/behavi-
oral fields increased at a rate of approximately 12 percent per year
(FIGURE 2, TABLE 7~. Since 1971, the growth rate has slowed considerably.
In 1974, there was no growth over the previous year. This was largely
due to the fact that Ph.D. output in the basic biomedical sciences
actually declined from 1973 to 1974- the first time this has happened in
over 15 years.
The behavioral sciences exhibit a pattern of growth very similar to
the basic biomedical sciences, increasing at a rate of 12 percent up to
1971 and 6 percent from 1971 to 1974. But unlike the basic biomedical
sciences, behavioral science Ph.D. production continued to grow in 1974.
The health services research field has had erratic but generally
continuous growth since 1961 at an annual growth rate of about 13 percent
per year through 1974.
The number of Ph.D.'s given annually in the clinical sciences is
very small. It reached a peak of 55 Ph.D.'s in 1966 and has declined
steadily since then to 38 in 1974.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES
The demand for biomedical/behavioral researchers is strongly in-
fluenced by the amount of expenditures, both public and private, for
biomedical research and development. Since 1957, these expenditures have
grown rapidly, as have those for R and D in practically all other fields.
From 1961 to 1964, the growth in actual dollars was about 9 percent per
year (FIGURE 3, TABLE 83. But in 1968, inflation began to take its toll
50
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FIGURE 2 Annual Production of Ph.D.'s in the Biomedical/Behavioral Fields
Number of Average Annual
Ph.D.'s Awarded Growth Rates: 1961-71 1971-74
1
7800 -
7400 -
7000 -
6600
6200 -
5800 -
5400 _
5000 -
4600 -
4200 _
3800 ~
3400 ~
3000 _
2600 -
2200
1800 ~
1400
Source: TABLE 7
51
All Biomedical/
Behavioral Fields
Basic Biomedical
Sciences
Behavioral Sciences
All Biomedical/ ~ /
Behavioral Fields \ /
11.9% 2.0%
12.1% -0.9%
11.8% 5.6%
Basic Biomedical
Sciences
~ ,
/
/
/
Behavioral Sciences
1961 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Y E A R
OCR for page 52
TABLE 7 Production of Ph.D.'s in the Biomedical/Behavioral Fields, 1961-74
Basic Health
Fiscal Year Biomedical Behavioral Clinical1 Services
of Ph.D. Sciences Sciences Sciences Research Total
1961 1266 1042 39 39 2386
1962 1441 1123 31 34 2629
1963 1538 1185 35 38 2796
1964 1736 1297 46 64 3143
1965 1993 1276 49 61 3379
1966 2163 1489 55 79 3786
1967 2378 1788 54 83 4303
1968 2871 1970 47 86 4974
1969 3206 2406 46 85 5743
1970 3526 2727 53 1162 6422
1971 3873 3072 51 129 7125
1972 3897 3245 48 111 7301
1973 3943 3429 35 130 7537
1974 3744 ~ 3612 38 143 7537
1The clinical science Ph.D.'s are only a small portion of the total number
of researchers in the biomedical field over two thirds are M.D.'s. How-
ever, as can be seen in this table, a few Ph.D.'s are granted in clinical
sciences each year. Some, but by no means all of these are also M.D.'s.
The clinical science fields in the DRF are limited to medicine and surgery,
dentistry, veterinary medicine, optometry and ophthalmology.
2The large increase in Ph.D.'s awarded in the health services research
field from 1969 to 1970 may have been due to a reclassification of field
codes in the DRF during that period.
SOURCES: Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities, 1958-66:
Sciences, Humanities, Professions, Arts, Office of Scientific
Personnel, NAS/NRC, 1967.
Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities, Summary
Reports, Office
Scientific Personnel, NAS/NRC, 1967-73.
52
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FIGURE 3 National Support for Medical and Health Related Research
.
Billion $
4.2
4.0
l
3.4 d _
3.2 .
_
_
2.8 _
3.8
3.6
3.0
2.6
2.4
Actual $
l
l
J
/
Pre-1968 growth
rate in constant $:/
9.0% per year /.J
} ~
/ ~
.^ ~
~ Act.
;7
L ~ Post-1968 growth rate
r-~ in actual $: 8.5% per year
, ~ Constant 1967 $
/ i \N,,'
I \.
; Post-1968 growth
rate in constants:
2.6% per year
J
2.2 ~ ·
2.0 ~ ' ~ /
1.8 ~ ,'// 1
1.6 ~ '* ~ _Pre-1968 growth rate
J ~ in actual $: 12.7% per year
1.4
1.2 ~ /
_ ~ :/
' /
1 ~
-
1962 64 66 68 70 72 74
Y E A R
SOURCE: Basic data provided by Office on Resources Analysis, Office of the
Director, National Institutes of Health. Growth rates calculated by
Commission on Human Resources, NAS/NRC.
53
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TABLE 8 National Support for Medical and Health-Related Research
Actual Dollars
Total Federal Private
($ billions) Industry
_
1952 0.197
1953 0.214
1954 0.237
1955 0.261
1956 0.312
1957 0.440
1958 0.543
1959 0.648
1960 0.845
1961 1.045
1962 1.290
1963 1.486
1964 1.652
1965 1.841
1966 -2.056
1967 2.280
1968 2.497
1969 2.691
1970 2.731
1971 3.023
1972 3.354
1973 3.563
1974 4.249
1975 (est.) 4.220
0.103
0.107
0.119
0.139
0.162
0.229
0.279
0.351
0.448
0.574
0.782
0.919
1.049
1.174
1.316
1.458
1.582
1.674
1.667
1.977
2.147
2.225
2.753
2.609
0.052
0.058
0.061
0.062
0.079
0.126
0.170
0.190
0.253
0.312
0.336
0.375
0.400
0.450
0.510
0.580
0.661
0.754
0.795
0.860
0.925
1.033
1.180
1.280
Other
0.042
0.049
0.057
0.060
0.071
0.085
0.094
0.107
0.144
0.159
0.172
0.192
0.203
0.217
0.230
0.242
0.254
0.263
0.269
0.286
0.282
0.305
0.316
0.331
Total
1.267
1.516
1.698
1.840
1.986
2.144
2.280
2.383
2.446
2.354
2.468
2.578
2.619
2.948
2.686
Constant 1967 Dollars
Federal
($ billions)
0.695
0.918
1.050
1.168
1.266
1.372
1.458
1.509
1.521
1.437
1.532
1.650
1.636
1.910
1.660
Private
Industry
0.378
0.394
0.428
0.445
0.485
0.531
0.580
0.630
0.685
0 _685
0.702
0.711
0.759
0.818
0.814
0.192
0.202
0.219
0.226
0.234
0.239
0.242
0.242
0.239
0.231
0.233
0.216
0.224
0.219
0.210
.
R and D
Price
Index
1967=100)
82.5
85.1
87.5
89.8
92.7
95.9
100.0
104.8
110. ~
116.0
122.5
130.1
136.0
144.1
157.1
1A Price Index for Deflation of Academic R and D Expenditures NSF 72-310, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C., May 1972.
SOURCE; Biomedical Research Manpower for the Eighties, Resources for Medical Research
. . . . . .
Report $11, Office of Resources Analysis, NIH, HEW, Washington, D. C. t December
1968, and unpublished data.
54
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TABLE 9 Federal Biomedical/Behavioral R and D Funds
Year
: - Biomedical & Health- .
Related Sciences Behavioral Sciences
(all life sciences, Clinical Sciences (psychology, anthro-
except clinical pology r sociology)
($ millions) % | ($ millions) % | ($ millions) % |
llS9 60.8 514 27.0 233 12.2
1414 63.2 568: 25.4 257 11.5
1398 61.1 661 28.9 229 10.0
1658 61.6 808 30.0 224 8.3
1585 61.4 1 778 30.2 1 217 8.4
Total
($ millions)
1971
1972
1973
1974 (est.)
1975 (est.)
1906
2239
2288
2690
2580
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
SOURCE: Federal Funds for Research, Development and~Other Scientific
Activities, Table
D. C., various years.
, National Science Foundation, Washington,
55
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as R and D costs escalated. The NSF has compiled an index of academic
R and D costs23 which shows that 1974 costs for such activities were
57 percent higher than in 1967. As a result, although total national
funds for health-related research have continued to expand at almost
9 percent per year in actual dollars, the real growth in constant dollars
since 1968 has been about 3 percent per year. During the past five
years, about 60 percent of federal R and D funds for biomedical/
behavioral research went to the basic biomedical and health-related
sciences, 30 percent to the clinical sciences, and the remaining 10
percent to the behavioral sciences (TABLE 91.
CURRENT NUMBER OF ACTIVE RESEARCHERS
Reliable data on the size of the pool of biomedical/behavioral
researchers as a function of tome are hard to come by. The Committee
examined longitudinal data obtained from the several National Registers
of Scientific and Technical Personnel, but found them erratic and
inconclusive. Further analysis may make it possible to use these data,
which cover a span of almost two decades, but there was insufficient
time for this to be done for the present report. The Committee has
relied instead on data derived from the 1973 Survey of Doctoral Scien-
tists and Engineers and the 1975 Faculty Profile compiled by the Asso-
ciation of American Medical Colleges (Appendix D).
Data on the Ph.D. (or equivalent) component come from the Survey
of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers. Individuals counted on the
following table are employed in biomedical and behavioral fields and
have indicated that research or the management of research activities
is their primary work activity.
23A Price Index for Def]
~ on of Academic it-and D Expenditures. NSF 72-310
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., May 1972.
56
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Field
Basic Biomedical Sciences., Total
Anatomy
Biochemistry
Biomathematics
Biomedical Engineering
Biophysics
Cytology
Embryology
Genetics.
Immunology
Microbiology/Bacteriology
Molecular Biology
Parasitology
Pathology
Pharmacology
Physiology, Animal
Physiology, Plant
Other Biomedical Sciences, Total
Botany
Ecology
Entomology
Environmental Sciences
Hydrob~ology
Nutrition/Food Science
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Zoology
Biomedical Sciences, Other
Behavioral Sciences, Total
Anthropology
Behavior/Ethology
Clinical Psychology
Comparative Psychology
Counseling and Guidance
Developmental/Gerontological
Educational Psychology
Exper/Compar/Physiol Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Industrial/Personnel Psychology
Personality Psychology
Physiological Psychology
Psychometrics
School Psychology
Social Psychology
Social Statistics
Sociology
Psychology, Other
Number of Active Ph.D.
Researchera
(1973)
17,800
347
5,317
151
577
907
340
163
1,056
983
1,930
1,388
215
411
1,624
1,769
622
7,955
332
551
1,272
1,424
90
307
297
248
3,434
6,914
263
78
776
99
115
333
574
5
797
468
77
509
196
86
563
110
1,067
798
1The numbers of individuals shown in the above table do not necessarily reflect
the numbers that have been supported by NIH/ADAMHA/HRA training programs.
57
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Field
Clinical Sciences, Total
Dentistry
Medicine & Surgery
Veterinary Medicine
Health Services Research, Total
Biometrics/Biostatistics
Hospital Administration
Public Health
Total
Number of Active
Ph.D. Researchers
(1973)
503
291
212
704
342
30
332
33876
The American Medical Association estimates that about 8,400 M.D.
were engaged in research activities in 1974. This appears to be the
best estimate available of the current size of the total pool of M.D.
researchers.
The Association of American Medical Colleges has supplied data
on the number of M.D. (or equivalent) researchers on medical school
faculties in each sub-field. Under the assumption that this same
distribution applies to the total pool of M.D. researchers, we have
computed estimates of the size of the pool in each subfield. These
are presented in TABLE 10 along with a summary of the Ph.D. pool
updated to 1975.
In summary, the pool in 1975 is estimated to be composed of approxi
mately 47,000 biomedical/behavioral researchers.
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TABLE 10 Estimated Number of Active Biomedical
. . . . . .
and Behavioral Researchers in 1975
.
M.D.'s
Ph.D.'s Total
Basic Biomedical Sciences 1,400 29,500 30,900
Behavioral Sciences __c 7,900 7,900
Clinical Sciences 6,800 600 7,400
Health Services Research 200 800 1,000
TOTAL 8,400 38,800 47,200
aThe estimated total of 8,400 M.D.'s in research was derived from Profile
of Medical Practice, American Medical Association, Chicago, Illinois,
-
1974. The number in each suLfield was estimated from data supplied by
the Association of American Medical Colleges, Washington, D. C.
Ph.D. data were derived from the 1973 Comprehensive Survey of Doctoral
Scientists and Engineers, Commission on Human Resources, NAS/NRC,
Washington, D. C., and updated to 1975 on the basis of a 7 percent
per annum increment.
The number of behavioral science M.D. researchers is small and hence
difficult to estimate. The best available information gives less than
ten M.D.'s in this category.
59
Representative terms from entire chapter:
behavioral sciences
