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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Suggested Citation:"INTRODUCTION." National Research Council. 1981. Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue: An Evaluation of Research Accomplishments and Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18461.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION In 1979, in response to a request from the Bureau of Mines in the U.S. Department of the Interior, the National Research Council appointed the Committee on Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue to review the Bureau's post-disaster survival and rescue program. The objectives of this review were the following: 1. Provide a critical evaluation of the current U.S. Bureau of Mines post-disaster survival and rescue program in the light of current technology and the present needs of the mining industry. 2. Suggest future research and development efforts in the post- disaster survival and rescue area. 3. Suggest ways to foster the integration of new effective technology and procedures into operational safety programs for the mining industry. This chapter discusses the following: the events leading to this review; the scope of the review; the definitions of mine hazards, ac- cidents, and disasters; the elements of a survival and rescue system; the underground mining industry; and the role of government in mine safety. 1.1 BACKGROUND In 1969, at the request of the Bureau of Mines, the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) appointed a Committee on Mine Rescue and Survival Techniques to assess survival and rescue techniques for use in mine disasters. That committee was concerned with: o The degree to which miners' prospects of survival might be improved in the event of circumstances preventing their normal withdrawal from a mine. o The prospects of improving rescue procedures, improving the effectiveness of existing devices, and developing new devices or equipment that might make it possible to improve significantly miners' chances of survival in the environments that prevail following disasters. -7-

o Technological advances in related fields, such as space explora- tion, deep submergence, and civil defense, that might lead to significant improvements in mine rescue techniques and equip- ment.* The NAE committee's report, "Mine Rescue and Survival,"** hereafter called "the 1970 NAE Report," consisted of two major parts. Part I described an interim mine rescue and survival system that the committee believed could be made available within a year using well-developed technology whose application was straightforward. The committee felt that such a system could have saved almost all of the coal miners who had died in recent years from carbon monoxide poisoning following explosions or fires. The interim system described in that report consisted of three subsystems: a survival subsystem using improved emergency breathing devices and refuge chambers, a communications sub- system using seismic or electromagnetic devices to locate and communi- cate with survivors, and a rescue subsystem using large- and small-hole drilling equipment and rescue teams. Some of the equipment recommended for the interim system was deemed applicable to survival and rescue of miners trapped by inundations or cave-ins. However the primary purpose of this system was to be rescuing survivors of fires or explosions. Part II of the 1970 NAE report dealt with recommendations for a research and development program which could lead to an advanced survival and rescue system. The recommendations included acquisition of basic data relating to mine rescue and survival so that newer and state-of-the-art technology could be incorporated in the advanced system. Part II also contained several recommendations on needed R&D in survival, communication and rescue subsystems. The 1970 NAE report became the basis of the USBM post-disaster survival and rescue program. The discussion and recommendations found in that report are, for the most part, still relevant today, although in some instances technology and operational capabilities have advanced to a point where modifications in that report's discussion of disaster response and management are warranted. In 1979, the Bureau of Mines asked the National Academy of Sciences to review the accomplishments of its post-disaster survival and rescue program in the light of current technology and needs, and to recommend future research directions and ways of effectively implementing research results. In undertaking this task, the Committee on Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue has examined not only the Bureau's program, but also the nation's experience with mine disasters since 1970 and the present capabilities and practices of mining companies and government agencies as they relate to disaster planning and emergency operations. Many of the committee's findings relate to organizational and planning matters *See the "Scope of Work" statement in Contract No. S0190606 between the United States of America and the National Academy of Sciences, February 26, 1969 **"Mine Rescue and Survival," National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C., 1970 -8-

that are the responsibility of the mine operators and of the Mine Safety and Health Administration, rather than of the Bureau of Mines. While these are discussed in this report, the primary focus is on improvements that require research and development. 1.2 SCOPE OF THIS STUDY In conducting this study, the Committee on Underground Mine Disaster Survival and Rescue has o Reviewed all underground mine disasters that have occurred in this country since 1968 to identify kinds of equipment or procedures that could have saved lives had they been available. The committee has also reviewed the reports of investigations of these disasters to assess their value in guiding decisions concerning research, regulations, and mine operations, o Evaluated the survival, rescue, and recovery procedures and equipment currently in use and under development to determine their potential for reducing the number of fatalities in mine disasters. o Examined the research and development program carried out by the Bureau of Mines since 1970 in the post-disaster survival and rescue area. o Made recommendations based on the above reviews. The committee has not examined the economics of post-disaster sur- vival and rescue in any detail. It did examine the budgets of the Bureau of Mines and MSHA post-disaster programs, but did not attempt to assess the adequacy of funding levels. The committee believes it would be useful for the Bureau of Mines and MSHA to contract for studies of cost-effectiveness of specific technological developments and operational procedures, but it did not attempt to carry out any such analyses. Nor did it attempt to analyze the economics of indi- vidual projects. It was more concerned with the overall pattern of post-disaster operations, related research, and implementation of research results, and the integration of these into a coherent and effective post-disaster survival and rescue system. Clearly, cost is an important criterion in such a system, but one that should be con- sidered against a background of national policy and objectives con- cerning mine safety. While the committee has, for the most part, directed its recommen- dations toward the Bureau of Mines, its feeling is that to be effec- tive, post-disaster survival and rescue must be viewed as a system in which research, planning, management, training, and design and manu- facture of equipment are all essential elements. Consequently, the report as a whole is addressed to the mine safety community—the Bureau of Mines, MSHA, NIOSH, the state mine inspection agencies, the mine operators, the unions, the equipment manufacturers, the research community, and the counterparts of all of these in other countries. 1.3 HAZARDS, ACCIDENTS, AND DISASTERS Unless there is a common understanding of terms, there can be considerable confusion in transmitting information and knowledge. -9-

This can be particularly vexing to the understanding of safety litera- ture in which terms such as "injury" and "accident" are often (and mistakenly) used interchangeably, and the definitions of accidents and hazards adopted for classification purposes may not be adequate for interpretation and control. The term "hazard" is used here to describe a dangerous situation in a mine. Perception of the hazard is essential because if the hazard is not perceived, no action can be taken. A "hazard source" is the background condition which, while not posing a danger in itself, may give rise to a hazard. An "accident" is the realization of a hazard. An accident of major proportions representing a substantial threat to human life may be said to have "disaster potential." If a large number of people are in fact killed, it is deemed a "disaster." For some time the Mine Safety and Health Administration defined as a "disaster" any accident resulting in the deaths of five or more miners. This defini- tion no longer has official status, but is still used informally and will be used in this report. To illustrate: The presence of methane in a mine is a hazard source. Concentrations of methane below 5% are not in themselves dangerous, but there must be continual alertness to the possibility of dangerous concentrations of methane, and awareness of the steps to be taken should the concentration reach dangerous levels. Certain actions are required at specified concentrations of methane. In the working face area, when the concentration exceeds 1% operations must cease and the ventilation system must be adjusted to lower the concentration; when the concentration exceeds 1.5% the miners must withdraw from the area.* When the concentration reaches 5% a hazard exists. If an ignition source is present a methane ignition can occur. This ignition is an accident that has disaster potential. The appropriate actions now are evacuation, first aid, etc. If the ignition develops into a methane explosion that claims a substantial number of lives, it is a disaster. Many mine accidents that have "disaster potential" do not become disasters, either because the accident occurs at a time when no or few workers are in the mine, or because the response is effective and all the threatened miners are evacuated safely. For those involved in safety management and research, the distinction between accidents and disasters is not important, and the aim is to identify and control the hazard. However, disasters command tremendous attention, because of their infrequent occurrence and the extent of human suffering involved, even though the number of deaths from non-disaster accidents has been many times higher. During the period 1970-79, 195 people died in underground mine disasters, while 1438 died in other accidents, as shown in Table 1.1. Survival and rescue of miners following an accident depends upon (1) the state of the mine communication system, (2) the ability of the accident to propagate and lead to more serious events, (3) the extent of injuries from the physical violence associated with the accident (4) the threat to life due to toxicity of the mine atmosphere, (5) the *30 CFR 75.308 -10-

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difficulty in sustaining life due to inadequate oxygen, (6) the number of miners trapped in the mine, (7) the impaired accessibility to the entrapped miners due to damage to hoists, etc., and (8) the availa- bility of evacuation, escape, survival, rescue and recovery equipment and procedures, and of workers trained in their use. 1.4 A MINE DISASTER SURVIVAL AND RESCUE SYSTEM The four essential elements of an underground mine disaster survival and rescue system are illustrated schematically in Figure 1.1. The elements are: hazard identification, mine design, disaster response, and post-disaster audit. Hazard Identification; The first element is a rigorous and con- tinuous search to identify sources of hazards and to move towards designing mining systems that will eliminate or reduce the likelihood of hazards. Mine design; The second element is the design of the mine itself to (1) eliminate as many hazards as possible; (2) reduce the chances of occurrence of hazards that cannot be eliminated; (3) localize the effects of accidents having disaster potential, and (4) enhance prospects for evacuation, escape, and survival in the event of a major accident. Disaster response; Six stages of response may be called for when a hazard is realized. These are hazard control, evacuation, escape, survival, rescue, and recovery. Hazard control refers to immediate action to eliminate the hazard or limit its scope—e.g., action to extinguish a fire. If successful, this may be all that is called for. If the hazard cannot be controlled, then personnel must move to a place of safety. Evacuation refers to the orderly exit of people from the mine using predetermined escapeways and following a predetermined plan for exit. Escape refers to safe exit by individual miners whose normal evac- uation route is blocked. These miners may try a number of alternate routes but do finally manage to escape. In both evacuation and escape, miners may use an emergency breathing apparatus such as the "filter self-rescuer," a belt-worn device that, when in use, filters carbon monoxide out of the air the miner breathes. For those who are unable to evacuate or escape, the issue becomes survival while waiting to be rescued. Some miners may be immobilized and some may be injured. The trapped miners may erect barricades to isolate themselves from life-threatening gases or may take shelter in refuge chambers where these are available. The survival period may last for many days. This may be a period of considerable physiological and psychological stress. Rescue efforts are mounted from outside the mine, and are directed toward locating, communicating with, reaching, and removing the trapped miners. If the rescue effort proves too difficult, or takes too long, or if the atmosphere in the mine is too hostile or the miners' injuries too severe, some or all of the trapped miners may succumb. Rescue -12-

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efforts are continued to the point at which additional effort is deemed fruitless or likely to endanger the lives of the rescue personnel. Recovery of the bodies of the victims and restoration of normal operations in the mine follow once conditions inside the mine permit this. Post-disaster audit; A thorough post-disaster audit should deter- mine the cause of the disaster, evaluate the functioning of the emer- gency procedures, and recommend, as needed, (1) development of new equipment, new approaches to mine design, and new emergency procedures and plans; (2) better training; and (3) changes in legislation, regu- lation, and enforcement. The findings of the audit must be made available to the affected mine and to all other mines, so that out of each disaster comes an increased awareness of the steps that can be taken to prevent future disasters or to respond to them effectively. An effective survival and rescue system depends upon the develop- ment of technology and procedures for mine alarm, emergency communica- tions, mobilization of personnel, emergency medical assistance, and surface organization to manage rescue operations, as well as the equipment and procedures needed for evacuation, escape, survival, rescue, and recovery. 1.5 THE UNDERGROUND MINING INDUSTRY Mining is the process of extracting materials from the earth. Mining methods can be broadly classified as surface or underground, depending on whether the ore body is recovered from operations on the surface of the earth, or from operations in underground openings. In a sense, mining includes the removal of gas and oil from underground chambers and the recovery of subterranean water as well as the extrac- tion of coal, mineral ores, and stone. This report is limited to the study of rescue and survival activities that are associated with underground mining of solid resources. There is considerable variety in the physical structure of under- ground mines. Some are cavernous stone mines with roofs 25 to 50 feet high and huge portals capable of accommodating heavy motorized vehicles. Some are shallow mines in coal seams two or three feet high in which miners must crawl or "duckwalk." There are gassy and nongassy mines, mines with elevators and mines with ladders, mines with truck or rail transportation systems and mines with none. Some mines employ hundreds of underground workers and some employ fewer than five. This report follows the usual practice of considering the mining industry as consisting of two distinct segments: (1) coal; and (2) metallic and non-metallic minerals and stone (usually abbreviated as "metal-nonmetal"). There are approximately 2,500 underground coal mines in the United States, accounting for roughly 40% of the nation's coal production, and approximately 500 underground metal mines, 100 underground non-metallic mineral mines, and 100 underground stone mines, which together account for 6% of the nation's ore production. All of the nation's more than 7,000 sand and gravel mines are surface operations, and they will not be considered. -14-

Table 1.2 shows the total number of underground mines, the total number of miners, and the distribution of mines by number of employees for the coal, metallic, non-metallic and stone operations. In 1978, underground coal mining accounted for 81% of the total underground workforce in the mineral industry and for 79% of the total number of underground mines. Only 13% of the mines employed more than 100 miners, while 60% of the mines employed fewer than 20 miners. Underground coal mines tend to be concentrated in Appalachia, Illinois, and western Kentucky. Metal and nonmetal mines are found throughout the country. The mine designs and mining methods differ, and appropriate post-disaster survival and rescue equipment and procedures must be uniquely determined for each operation. 1.6 THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT Initially, state governments regulated mining. The Bureau of Mines was established in the U.S. Department of the Interior in 1910, and was charged with conducting research in mining methods and mine safety but had no inspection or enforcement authority.* Inspection and enforcement were left to the states, and state laws reflected the nature and extent of mining in that state—such as deep or surface mining—and the type of ore mined (e.g., coal, metal, non-metal). Pennsylvania's regulations date back to 1869, and the Illinois law dates back to 1872. Enactment of significant health and safety legislation at both the federal and state levels has closely followed major mine disasters *The Bureau of Mines Organic Act, P.L. 179, May 16, 1910 (36 Stat. 369) states that the Bureau shall conduct "...diligent investigation of the methods of mining, especially in relation to the safety of miners, and the appliances best adapated to prevent accidents, the possible improvement of conditions under which mining operations are carried on, the treatment of ores and other mineral substances, the use of explosives and electricity, the prevention of accidents, and other inquiries and technologic investigations pertinent to said industries, and from time to time make such public reports of the work, investigations, and information obtained as the Secretary of said department may direct, with the recommendation of such bureau..." (Sec. 2) and specifies that "...nothing in this Act shall be construed as in any way granting to any officer or employee of the Bureau of Mines any right or authority in connection with the inspection or supervision of mines or metallurgical plants in any State." (Sec. 5) -15-

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(see Table 1.3). However the federal government was, prior to 1969, extremely reluctant to intrude into the areas of mine health and safety and particularly the enforcement of standards, which was viewed as a state responsibility. 1.6.1 The Federal Role Changes in the federal government's responsibility for mine safety have developed through the series of legislative actions shown in Table 1.3, culminating with passage of the Federal Metal and Non-metallic Mine Safety Act of 1966 (the 1966 Metal Mine Act), the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 (the 1969 Coal Mine Act), and the Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977 (the 1977 Mine Safety and Health Act). Although the 1966 Metal Mine Act* did not make specific reference to research, it did authorize the Secretary of the Interior to develop, revise as necessary, and promulgate health and safety standards for the purposes of protection of life, the promotion of health and safety, and the prevention of accidents in mines. The 1969 Coal Mine Act went much further. The purpose of that Act was (1) to establish interim mandatory health and safety standards and to direct the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Secretary of the Interior to develop and promulgate improved mandatory health or safety standards to protect the health and safety of the Nation's coal miners; (2) to require that each operator of a coal mine and every miner in such mine comply with such standards; (3) to cooperate with, and provide assistance to, the States in the development and enforcement of effective State coal mine health and safety programs; and (4) to improve and expand, in cooperation with the States and the coal mining industry, research and development and training programs aimed at preventing coal mine accidents and occupa- tionally caused diseases in the industry. Section 301(b) of Title III elaborated on the application of man- datory safety standards: The purpose of this title is to provide for the immediate application of mandatory safety standards developed on the basis of experience and advances in technology and to prevent newly created hazards resulting from new technology in coal mining. The Secretary (of the Interior) shall immediately initiate studies, investigations, and research to further upgrade such standards and to develop and promulgate new and improved standards promptly that will provide increased protec- tion to the miners, particularly in connection with hazards *Federal Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety Act, P.L. 89-577, 80 Stat. 772 **Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969, P.L. 91-173 (83 Stat. 742), Sec. 2(g) -17-

Table 1.3 Development of Federal and State Mine Safety Laws In the United States.* •Ml lKt lt.4.11H I.I. MM 1.1.11/0 tt.4.l170 t7. 1. 117t t1.1.l174 11.4.1177 M.1.iiTo 10.S.lMM H.MUJO i J li.il DlUSUR sun An llMUL IF.ClSUllM moniuis ron n [iwiwin or oma t P«O*WO A*on.ta.o. PfMlylvMU (lM kilM) Sckuylklll Ciuinln. P<nM>lunlo (AnUroclU) HlM lnllKctlu* Act rJOf0iffJ SclwyUtll County, NMdrlvONU (AntVoclU) HlM lMpoctloo Act l*Mtl 1* •[( r.tlt»! HlM lMpocltM Act Ml* (llliMli.tK.1) HtM lnt^MtloM Act HofXor Cowntr, ronMylvonlo (HtMl lMpoctlon Act MllMlt Hino lnlMctlon Act OHlo HlM lMMctlo* Att wl1 HlM Wtl «lr)TH HlM l«ooctloI< Act iMtlKky HIM lMOoctloo Act rodoril lMpoctlon or ill •lnl rfun mn HlM 10 Mfl Mrk—UylMlno Territory Fodoril lMpoctlon of 111 HlMt lo TorrltorIM • llk gr»lir lMo 1000 lo*l >ro*Klloo--lln He.lio. 0kUtoM. U4 UllK fo4onl iMpoctlon or alMt ln tw Torrltor1oi lr*niferr*J to tko U.S. Goo!o|lcil Survoy I.lMM7 HunMWk, Will «lrgloU (Ml klllH) lI.lt.lM7 turr. riuMylvinU (t11 kllloil) S.lW U.S. Cooloflcil Survey furj.d to lnmtlolto MlM occlarntt ond oiploiloM ». 11. 1001 HjrUihM. PoMilylvonU (lS4 klllH) l1.ll.lWI Ctarry, MllnU (tM kllM1 10. 7. 1110 U.S. hroM or HlMl oftltlltoM. M alM lMpocttoo rlo>tt 11. 1.lt1t •lflloU HlM lnIMctloo Act 7.1.lM1 PI 41: Fodorll Coll HlM lM«octloo Act t4.7.lM1 roooril HlM ;.i*i, CoM tl. 1.lM7 ControlU, llllMU (lll klllM) 4.1.lM7 4.1. 1M7 HlnJotory lovl lllKo .il', lko roowll HlM Siroly Codo For lt HMtllt •llk lM FHSC or lMI 1)11 coivlUnco round) tl. lt. lMl Wnl fr.nlforl. llll~.ll (11t klllod) 11.7. 1«t PI Hit F.J.,.r t CMl HlM Sirotf Act HM SoMto 1111: S. 741 [11.lMU tMll HlMl K.1.l9U PI 171: [llalMtlon or lM Moll OllMt oBOMtlM [»** 1 1 i* or PI ui MOTiia or it ssi ll.o.ltM PI M-177 rootril MUl Ml lOM-HIUl •..'.-, Act I.llM ro*nl Cwl MM HMllt «d Siflty Act n.ll.KW Fmilnflo*. mil tlrthiU 171 kllM) PA0P0StD M.lt. lMI PI 11-171: Foooril Coll HlM HoolU Mrf ItloU Act or lMI 1.l1.lt77 PL H-lMt Foofril HlM liroly mil Hultk Act or lI 77 *From "An International Review of Regulations for Diesel-Powered Equipment In Underground Mines" by G. W. Kenzy and R. V. Raman!, In Proceedings of the Second International Mine Ventilation Congress, Reno, Nevada, November 4-8, 1979, published by the Society of Mining Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, New York, 1980, pp. 175-190. -18-

from trolley wires, trolley feeder wires, and signal wires, the splicing and use of trailing cables, and in connection with improvements in vulcanizing of electric conductors, improvement in roof control measures, methane drainage in advance of mining, improved methods of measuring methane and other explosive gases and oxygen concentrations, and the use of improved underground equipment and other sources of power for such equipment.* Title V of the Act set important requirements for and authorized the appropriation of funding for health and safety research: The Secretary (of the Interior) and the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, as appropriate, shall conduct such studies, research, experiments, and demonstrations as may be appropriate—(1) to improve working conditions and practices in coal mines, and to prevent accidents and occupational diseases originating in the coal-mining industry; (2) to develop new or improved methods of recovering persons in coal mines after an accident; (3) to develop new or improved means and methods of communication from the surface to the under- ground area of a coal mine; (4) to develop new or improved means and methods of reducing concentrations of respirable dust in the mine atmosphere of active workings of the coal mine; (5) to develop epidemiological information to (A) identify and define positive factors involved in occupational diseases of miners, (B) provide information on the incidence and prevalence of pneumoconiosis and other respiratory ailments of miners, and (C) improve mandatory health standards; (6) to develop tech- niques for the prevention and control of occupational diseases of miners, including tests for hypersusceptibility and early detection; (7) to evaluate the effect on bodily impairment and occupational disability of miners afflicted with an occupa- tional disease;(8) to prepare and publish from time to time, reports on all significant aspects of occupational disease of miners as well as on the medical aspects of injuries, other than diseases, which are revealed by the research carried on pursuant to this subsection; (9) to study the relationship between coal mine environments and occupational diseases of miners; (10) to develop new and improved underground equipment and other sources of power for such equipment which will provide greater safety; and (ll) for such other purposes as they deem necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. (b) Activities under this section in the field of coal mine health shall be carried out by the Secretary of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare, and activities under this section in the field of coal mine safety shall be carried out by the Secretary (of the Interior).** *0p cit. Sec. 301(b) **0p cit, Sec. 501(a,b) -19-

While the 1969 Act applied only to coal mines, it was amended by the Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977* to include non-coal mines as well. The 1966 and 1969 Acts represented a significant departure from tradition in that health and safety standards were to be enforced by an agency of the federal government. Enforcement of the 1966 Metal Mine Act and the 1969 Coal Mine Act originally rested with the Bureau of Mines in the Department of the Interior. In 1973, the enforcement of both of these laws was entrusted to a new agency, the Mine Enforce- ment and Safety Administration (MESA), created within the Department of the Interior. The 1977 Act established in the Department of Labor a Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) to be headed by an Assistant Secretary of Labor for Mine Safety and Health, and trans- ferred the enforcement responsibility to this new agency. The 1969 and 1977 acts also gave certain responsibilities to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services). The result is that today the federal government's responsibilities for mine safety and health are divided among three agencies: MSHA, the Bureau of Mines, and NIOSH. MSHA is responsible for issuing and enforcing mine safety and health regulations, for training miners, and for responding to mine emergencies. The Bureau of Mines is responsible for conducting research on mine safety and on technological means for reducing health hazards in mines. NIOSH is responsible for conducting research relating to miner health, and together with MSHA for testing and certifying devices used to detect hazardous materials in mines and protective equipment used by miners. MSHA and the Bureau of Mines work cooperatively to identify areas in which research and development have the potential to contribute significantly to an improved survival and rescue capability. The Bureau has the major responsibility for conducting the R&D, while MSHA shares with the Bureau the responsibility for integrating R&D results into operational practice. MSHA implements R&D results either by incorporating them into its own operations or by rulemaking that requires new practices or equipment to be adopted by the mining industry.** The Interagency Memoranda of Understanding clarifying the responsibilities of MSHA, the Bureau of Mines, and NIOSH are reproduced in Appendix I. *Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977, P.L. 95- 164 **While there have been many instances in which the Bureau's R6D results have been adopted by the mining industry without rulemaking, these have generally occurred in areas other than post-disaster survival and rescue. -20-

1.6.2. The Mine Safety and Health Administration; Regulations, Enforcement, Training, and Emergency Operations The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) is responsible for promulgating and enforcing regulations to implement federal mine safety and health laws.* Regular mine inspections are conducted under the supervision of district managers (there are distinct organizational elements addressing coal and metal-nonmetal mines) to ensure compliance with regulations. The district managers are also the officials with primary responibility for responding to serious mine emergencies, assessing their nature, and determining the course of action to be followed. MSHA also maintains a training academy that provides health and safety related training to its employees and to mine personnel. Sections 103(j) and 103(k) of Title II of the 1977 Mine Safety and Health Act provide that: j) In the event of any accident occurring in any coal or other mine, the operator shall notify the Secretary (of Labor) thereof and shall take appropriate measures to prevent the destruction of any evidence which would assist in investigating the cause or causes thereof. In the event of any accident occurring in a coal or other mine, where rescue and recovery work is necessary, the Secretary or an authorized representa- tive of the Secretary shall take whatever action he deems appropriate to protect the life of any person, and he may, if he deems it appropriate, supervise and direct the rescue and recovery activities in such mine. (k) In the event of any accident occurring in a coal or other mine, an authorized representative of the Secretary (of Labor), when present, may issue such orders as he deems appropriate to insure the safety of any person in the coal or other mine, and the operator of such mine shall obtain the approval of such representative, in consultation with appropriate State representatives, when feasible, of any plan to recover any person in such a mine or to recover the coal or any other mine or return affected areas of such mine to normal. These provisions grant the MSHA representative broad authority to take whatever action is appropriate to protect lives. The MSHA representative's role in an emergency operation may be limited to support and advice, or it may extend to taking partial or total command of the rescue and recovery activities. In addition to mines, MSHA's responsibility includes all under- ground excavations, encompassing, for example, tunnels and caves **Federal Mine Safety and 164, Title II, Sec. 103 (j,k) **Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977, P.L. 95- -21-

Part 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations requires mine operators to immediately notify MSHA of accidents. As used in this regulation, "accident" means: 1. A death of an individual at a mine 2. An injury to an individual at a mine which has a reasonable potential to cause damage 3. An entrapment of an individual for more than 30 minutes 4. An unplanned inundation of a mine by a liquid or gas 5. An unplanned ignition or explosion of gas or dust 6. An unplanned mine fire not extinguished within 30 minutes of discovery 7. An unplanned ignition or explosion of a blasting agent or an explosive 8. An unplanned roof fall at or above the anchorage zone in active workings where roof bolts are in use; or, an unplanned roof or rib fall in active workings that impairs ventilation or impedes passage 9. A coal or rock outburst that causes withdrawal of miners or which disrupts regular mining activity for more than one hour 10. An unstable condition at an impoundment, refuse pile, or culm bank which requires emergency action in order to prevent failure, or which causes individuals to evacuate an area; or, failure of an impoundment, refuse pile, or culm bank 11. Damage to hoisting equipment in a shaft or slope which endangers an individual or which interferes with use of the equipment for more than 30 minutes 12. An event at a mine which causes death or bodily injury to an individual not at the mine at the time the event occurs.* If such an accident occurs, the mine operator must immediately notify the MSHA district or subdistrict office having jurisdiction over the mine. If the operator cannot contact the appropriate MSHA district or subdistrict office, then MSHA headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, must be notified. Accidents resulting in two or more deaths, fires that are not extinguished within 30 minutes, explosions, inundations, entrapments, and any other accidents requiring mine rescue and recovery procedures are immediately reported by the district or subdistrict manager to MSHA headquarters in Arlington, Virginia. The district or subdistrict manager is authorized to take whatever actions may be necessary to protect lives pending the receipt of instructions from Arlington. MSHA's Mine Emergency Operations (MEO) facility maintains rescue and recovery equipment consisting of a rescue drilling rig, communica- tions equipment, and supporting mine emergency services, personnel, and equipment (provided in large part through contracts with private firms and other governmental agencies) that are held in readiness for rapid mobilization. MEO supports on-site communications, logistics, gas sampling and analysis, and, where needed, seismic locating of trapped miners and exploratory and rescue drilling. During the past decade *30 CFR 50.2(h) -22-

there were no emergency escape holes drilled utilizing MBO's heavy drill rig. Small-diameter probe and test holes were drilled in several situations, using locally available drills. Table 1.4 lists the 18 situations during the period 1970-1979 when MEO facilities were deployed, and in each case shows the elapsed time between occurrence of the accident, the MEO alert, the MEO deployment, and the arrival of the MEO team at the accident site. The time spans between the MEO alert and the order to deploy, and between deployment and arrival on site, have been quite variable, with the latter occasionally taking as long as 36 hours. It has sometimes been as long as 12 to 48 hours after MEO personnel arrive at the accident site before the seismic locating equipment is put into operation and drilling is begun if needed. MEO is only one part of MSHA's response to an emergency. Other appropriate steps may be taken, such as establishment of a ventilation evaluation office at the mine, staffed with ventilation experts from the district office and MSHA's technical support personnel. The MSHA rescue and recovery operation is conducted in coordina- tion with any operations conducted by state officials and agencies. Representatives of the company and the mine workers are also given an opportunity to participate in and be informed of these operations, provided that this does not interfere with the rescue and recovery work. MSHA also conducts investigations of accidents. The depth of the investigation and the detail of the investigation report are determined by the nature and severity of the accident. Unless granted permission by an MSHA district or subdistrict manager, no operator may alter an accident site or an accident-related area until completion of all investigations pertaining to the accident, except to the extent necessary to rescue or recover an individual, prevent or eliminate an imminent danger, or prevent destruction of mining equipment. 1.6.3 The Bureau of Mines: Mine Health and Safety Research The legislative actions of 1969 and 1977 led to increased funding for the Bureau's health and safety research program and set several new objectives for Bureau research. Research and development activities were to be undertaken to reduce or eliminate hazards potentially injurious to the health or safety of miners and to provide a techno- logical basis for industry compliance with existing health and safety regulations and for the development of new regulations.* Some of the Bureau's research is conducted in-house at its 10 research centers, but the major portion is conducted under contract by private organizations. From 1970 to 1979, the Bureau spent approximately $326 million on health and safety research. Of this, post-disaster research has received $17.9 million (See Table 1.5). Other major areas of concern have been ground control ($71.6 million), industrial hazards ($69.7 *Five Year Plan, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, February 1980. -23-

••uni•ationa, , TV probe, cue ssiuni•ations, and analysis \ K } 8 •e.rt. tee*, ••uni•ationa, and analysis. •II 1 8 1 '| la. 3 1 .1 L»jioti•a •eiami• pt Loqleti•a gas aaepl: Airlift o: 32 0 Transport logisti•s gas Bampl airlifts. 3 Logisti•s Seismi• 1 drilling. gas lampl U . j . M • 1- ^ j. hii ^ a ^ a. mi 1 ^ • a i fr S Q. « d li qo H 1 ° i! I! %» H *J O *J O -H M 2 PJ h - M - s ; 11 1 i a f* a • a 8 et M • o o U o -i O -SO o o V O h " r-' 0 n *J O K > o i *H 1 *H 9 X. i M tr. i IT • 0 • • * - - h • r-l - 0. 3^ $ e 1 Ii r- 5 'N si - tn S, 1 o fa Gin 0,0 V o fi 1 B O to Si z *** • 1 i M M ^ s . 1 M Septembci 10:27 a.t 6:45 p.M. Septembei 3:40 p.m. November 12:00 p.i B % H a 0 I O•tober . ii o -H « Js •*4 O M 1 8 II n* . ^ 01 o E y JJ M H • i c fl 0 >* Septembe O•tober 4:45 p.r 4.1 1 November 10:00 a. i1 d, there rimarily M 1 V en 1 a a E 1-1 : ^ -M A '! | 1| 1*1 c 38 J c§ • fat § | i! B • H tn ii • if i 1 « *j S " ** 4 S • -S 11 88 • Oil H -H 3 o a i i • _ i V •? >- •3 I § i S ^ . §• SS jj I 1 : 1 3 1 l| S O M 115 > 'S * s 8* -* o 5 -S s* z: V.sta Mo. S Jones and Ls Steel Corpor California, Pennsylvania PtP Coal Company St. Charles, « c Oil shale Mi O••idental p Corporation Connors Hote Joplin, Miss U U 11 Twigg Cav. Cu,erland, c - *i M i III! SS Hi S-H S 9 o •o .-*! .-° MX A -* d 1 5 1 r- (0 c r- P Jj 8• i SJ 2 p. r- « n J n ^ -^ _ !» 3 * lN Oi JJ O •H -, C H •H *H h se •s j o r- i I | • C £ § | | | a tn O Wl | I ft * V z -25-

I 1 r-l O to to ON Ci o> m -D H in ^ 1N cD ^ rH r-« r_1 fH « to to in -o -o £ rH in wj to rH -1 C, -D rH m ^c »-n lM 0 n CO 1N o rv, **s (N « ° r- GO fHl fS Ok CM cNa ti 2 2 E cn m v "•! r- C 00 rH c^ 0> ND <0 • - - • . . „ r- 1N in Ok *Q rH "1 0 C * ~ No I o r» to 1v , * • ^- 0>* W3 - - • S s r- m m c\j rH --. 0 9> r H 1-t O 1 No rH LQ to r» ^ eg *** r* en fM tv! ^* rH T-H CS o ro cy » r H H I M m -w -o- o rH Cb ^ u £ S; in r» rH 1s. ^. rH ^ O *? Si ss s in ^r ^ to .H CD f* S-H : 00 -H ~ Q a rH 0 01 -H JJ lH in <u SS - in m ^ w 1N n to i§ s M i^ r H u M ^! SS S ^ in wa rH as 5! a; o: O C: C; O | o « rH — . vo to is s - H VO M 5*0 to m n ^ § *H ^. Is u 1 10 S fO fl £ C 10 o *-» 10 »-J •rt JJ JJ O > a 58 o +i t * JJ i * T3 -H 11 jj i 3 1 i 01 C 10 % W-H e a o M JJ * •H H 0 O £ JJ JJ 13 in lM *o c in c ,_} c a 0 10 * 3 t-o 9 c ~ o a u -> o i 10 O JJ 0 •" i n c -4 o « 10 a: <-- a: u • u * o fD 3 V a. H ffi X -26-

million), fires and explosions ($42.4 million), respirable dust ($28.9 million), methane control ($23.1 million), industrial hygiene ($16.3 million), noise ($9.5 million), radiation hazards ($8.5 million), ventilation ($2.4 million), and explosives ($2.4 million). In each of these areas there is a joint MSHA-Bureau of Mines research review committee. These committees serve to guide the Bureau's research priorities and research funding decisions, and help to ensure that these decisions incorporate MSHA's assessments of the research and development activities it needs in order to fulfill its regulatory and enforcement role. The Bureau's post-disaster research program is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. 1.6.4 NIOSH and State Agencies The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the mine inspection agencies of the various states also have roles relating to post-disaster survival and rescue. NIOSH conducts research relating to the occupational health of miners. Its research draws upon expertise in medicine, epidemiology, toxicology, and industrial hygiene, as well as engineering, physical science, and other health fields. NIOSH does not have a direct role in survival and rescue operations, but is involved, with MSHA, in approval of equipment that may be used in those operations. NIOSH also provides MSHA with technical information concerning toxic materials and harmful physical agents in mines and works with MSHA in developing regulatory standards for such materials. It provides assistance to MSHA in field investigations and training. NIOSH and MSHA are jointly responsible for testing and certifying devices for measuring harmful physical agents in mines and for testing and certifying personal protective equipment. NIOSH is responsible for certifying that such devices perform as required, MSHA for certifying that they are intrinsically safe. NIOSH also conducts research on worker fatigue in relation to design features of breathing apparatus. NIOSH plays a public health role in addition to its research role. Its activities in mining include health hazard evaluations, general mining surveillance as mandated by law, and medical surveillance including coal miner x-ray and autopsy programs. When appropriate, NIOSH performs or assists in performing autopsies on miners killed in accidents and disasters. Many states in which mining is significant have mine inspection agencies, whose budgets reflect the extent and nature of the mining industry in that state. Some states also maintain rescue and recovery equipment and personnel that can be mobilized to respond to a disaster. The states do not generally provide funds for mine disaster survival and rescue research. State officials are likely to be among the first on the scene of a disaster, and their technical expertise and knowledge of local con- ditions are of great value. -27-

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