Index
A
Acacia senegal,126
Aflatoxins, 51
Africa
domesticated species, 33
farming practices, 66
genetic resources work, 356-357
root and tuber programs, 96
African cassava mosaic virus, 58
African streak virus, 200
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights including Trade in Counterfeit Goods, 281
Agricultural practices/systems
alternative strategies, 18, 66-67, 76
continuous cropping, 78
crop rotations, 18, 66, 76, 78
high-input, 66
IARC programs, 66
monoculture, 16, 18, 36-37, 48, 50-51, 66, 67, 82
and productivity, 63
recommendations, 82-83
research funding, 103
and resistance, 76
traditional, 127-128
and vulnerability of crops, 82-83
and yields, 179
Agrobacterium tumefanciens,252
Albino mutants, 226
Alleles
common, 121
common, localized, 139, 140, 143
conceptual classes, 139
defined, 407
frequency, 138, 140, 143, 144-145, 159
introgression from exotic sources, 134
lower-frequency, 146-147, 148-149
rare, 160
rare, widespread, 139-140, 143
resistance, 54
self-incompatibility, 138
see also Neutral allele
Allium species, 9, 123, 125, 369, 373
Almonds, 123
Alpha interferon, 249
American Cyanamid Co., 285
American Malting Barley Association, 234
American Society of Agronomy, 183
Animals
germplasm importations, 262, 273
in vitro conservation, 196-197
of quarantine significance, 262
proprietary rights on, 284
see also Livestock
Antibiotics, 249
Aphids, 265
Apples, 33, 58, 61, 66, 78, 122-125
Apricots, 79
Arabidopsis spp., 199
Asia
alternative farming practices, 66
crop genetic diversity, 71
genetic resources conservation programs, 354-355
germplasm banks, 354-355
Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission, 267
Asian Farming Systems Network, 98
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, 9, 95, 354
Australia, genetic resources works, 358-359
B
Bacillus thuringiensis, 249, 252
Backcrossing, 21, 63, 101, 225
Bacteria
entry pathways for, 269
freeze-drying, 246
liquid nitrogen preservation, 246
plasmids in, 245-246
species number and richness, 245
see also individual bacteria
Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris),77
Bacterial diseases, 57
Bananas (Musa spp.), 52, 58, 61, 125, 172, 268, 274, 374
Barley
accessions, 182
Barley Genetics Newsletter,233-236
collections, 182, 185, 207, 367
economic value, 319
evolutionary processes and use of, 33, 184, 185
genetic stock collections, 229, 232-236
haploid plants, 195
hybridization, 185
IARC releases in developing countries, 93
nurseries, 96
primitive, 207
private sector breeding programs, 105, 106
public sector research, 104
rust epidemic, 58
Barley Genetic and Aneuploid Stock Collection, 234-236
Baum, Warren, 37
Beans
dry (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), 64, 68-69, 368
Faba, 368
farming practices, 66
field, 93
IARC releases in developing countries, 93, 94
Michigan navy, 68
pests and pathogens, 68-69
pinto, 68-69
public sector research, 104
quarantine restrictions, 265
seed production and distribution, 114
snap, 64
winged, 369
Belgium, 240
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon).262
Beta-lactam antibiotics, 249
Biological diversity
conventional, 14, 26-27, 280, 375
defined, 408
threats to, 2
Biosphere reserves, 123-124
Biotechnology
advances in, 189-190
in developing countries, 26
expenditures on plant breeding, 108
and gene pools of wild species, 31, 35, 38
germplasm conservation and, 10-11, 17, 20, 38-39, 111-112, 189-190
limitations of, 199-200
microorganism used in, 249-252
ownership issues, 13, 14, 108, 289-290
private sector research, 105, 107, 111, 289-290
and quarantine, 10, 12, 267, 274-275
recommendations, 20, 22-23, 26, 202-204
research needs, 22-23
team approach with breeders, 111-112
see also Genetic engineering;
In vitro conservation;
Molecular conservation technologies
Black pepper, 13
Black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis),58, 268
Bolivia, 94
Bottleneck effect, 147
Bovine viruses, 196
Bread molds (Neurospora spp.),219, 220, 242
Breeders
collections, 134, 180, 307-308
lines, 60, 62, 175, 219, 226-227, 408
monitoring advanced materials, 175
perceptions of crop vulnerability, 65
perceptions of germplasm systems, 62-63, 88, 114-115, 174-179, 180-183, 206
team approach with molecular biologists, 111-112
see also Plant breeders
Breeding
DNA transformation technique and, 11
and pathogen/pest absence, 58
speed and accuracy, 2
systems, 155-156
see also Crop breeding programs;
Plants breeding
Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens)16, 56, 76-77
Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Protection, 285
Burkina Faso, 77
C
Cacao swollen shoot virus, 58
California
Cooperative Rice Research Foundation, Inc., 292
grape pests, 36
plants quarantines, 34
Rice Research Board, 292
sorghum pathogens, 175
Caribbean
genetic resources works, 355-356
Plant Protection Commission, 267
Cassava
crop improvement programs, 96
exchange of germplasm, 195
forage, 9
IARC releases in developing countries, 93, 94
wild species, 122
Cassava bacterial blight, (Xanthomonas manihotis),12, 252, 273
Cell cultures, 193
Cenchrus ciliaris,126
Center for Genetic Resources (Netherlands), 213
Central Rice Research Institute, 309-310
Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, 355, 356
Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), 9, 39, 69, 94 , 97, 114, 195, 265, 366
Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), 9, 39, 88, 194, 267, 294, 366
Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT)
back-up collection for, 132
data base, 362
enhancement of germplasm, 186
exchange of germplasm, 290
nurseries, 95-96
rust susceptibility of populations, 74-75
teosinse conservation, 123-124
wheat breeding, 74-74, 81, 95-96
Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, 122, 356
Cercospora sp., 252
Cereals
adaptability testing, 95
domestication, 33
Certified seed systems, 284
Characterization
biotechnology and, 203-204
core subsets, 170
data bases with, 215
descriptors and descriptor states, 162, 209
environmental adaptation, 121
evaluation data and, 161
of gene pools, 121
growth rate, 121
importance of, 161-162, 165, 206
information sources, 212
molecular level, 197
passport data and, 161
phytopathology, 125
and seed regeneration, 162
size of collections and, 20, 167
standardization of data, 162
techniques, 162
technologies, 20
yield, 125
see also Traits
Charles M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center, 229-232
Chatkal Mountains Biosphere Reserve, 124
Chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica),49, 58, 259
China, 9, 74, 78, 85, 124, 166, 288-289, 293
Chinese cabbage, 9
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,242
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 252
Climax populations, 126
Clones/clonal propagation, 38, 61, 153
defined, 408
DNA fragments, 23
in vitro tissue culture, 22
microorganisms used in, 249-252
naturally occurring, 190
uses, 197
Cocoa (Theobroma spp.), 125
Coconut palm191
Coffee, 13, 52, 58, 125, 268, 274, 289
Coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix),58, 268
Collections of germplasm
active, 131, 132, 134, 178-179, 180-184, 407
allelic diversity and, 141-145
base, 88, 90, 131-132, 134, 152, 153, 155, 168, 180, 254, 290, 293 , 294, 367-373, 407
breeders' perceptions and use of, 62-63, 88, 180-183
completeness of, 88
core subsets, 8, 19-20, 88-89, 167-170
deficiencies in, 140-141
defined, 408
early, 34-35
empirical studies, 136-139, 141-145
environmentally influenced genetic differentiation and, 141-145
evaluation problems, 10-11, 32, 182-183;
see also Evaluation of accessions
genetic diversity and, 136-139
in vitro, 193-194
information sources on, 207-208
IPPGR role, 86
long-term conservation commitment, 367-373
maintenance and renewal of accessions, 181-182
microorganisms, 43
modernization, 183-184
parameters of genetic diversity, 135-136
passport and descriptor information, 9-10, 20, 63, 171-172, 181, 411
problems, 89
recommendations, 151-152, 170-171
reference, 195
size considerations, 7-8, 10, 42, 166-170, 182
sources of new accessions, 183-184
status of, 32
storage lives, 132
testing for pathogens/pests, 276
types, 131-134
see also Genetic stock collections;
Sampling
Collectotrichum sp., 252
Colorado potato beetle, 119
Colorado State University, 233, 234
Comite Tecnico Ad-Hoc en Sanidad Vegetal para el Area Sur, 267
Commodity research networks, 96-97, 98, 114
Commonwealth of Independent States
genetic resources work, 37, 349, 352
maize collection, 290
patents on animals, 284
Computers/computerization of collection data
data bases, 213-215
hardware, 210
information supply to users, 212-213
standardization of systems, 211-212
Conflicts over genetic resources
international controversy, 326-332
international dialogue, 324-336
international payment, 340-343
International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources and, 41, 26, 226, 325-327
North-South debate, 91-92, 332-333
origins, 322-324
ownership and stewardship, 333-334
plant breeders' rights, 92
politics and geography, 321-324
recommendations, 344-346
resolution avenues, 338-339
resolution basis, 337-338
responses to, 336-344
scientific balance, 343-344
seed industry restructuring, 334-336
South-South debate, 41
treaty solution, 339-340
Conservation of germplasm
actions necessary for, 253
adequacy of efforts, 118
biotechnology and, 10-11, 17, 38-40, 197-198
demand for, 11
dissenting views, 40-42
historical background, 1
IPPGR role, 86
multilevel collaborations, 28
origin, 33-34
rationales for, 49
science and technology and, 6-11
status of major crops, 8
see also In situ conservation;
In vitro conservation
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 214
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CIGAR), 5, 94-95, 374
IARC administration, 37-38, 85, 360-361
internationalization through, 377
legal protection for working materials, 288
Technical Advisory Committee, 40, 322, 361
Core subsets of collections
practical problems, 169-170
size considerations, 19-20, 167, 169
Corn
domestication, 33
gene pools, 178
hybrid, 5
introduction to Americas, 173
pests and pathogens, 16, 36, 61
private-sector hybrids, 52
public sector research, 104
southern corn leaf blight epidemic, 16, 36
sweet, 104
varietal dominance, 64
yield increases, 2
Zea mays,220
Côte d'Ivoire, 77
Cotton, 1, 64, 65, 76, 104-106, 110
Cotton boll weevil, 259
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, 349
Crop breeding programs
concerns about, 98-99
exotic germplasm, 95-96
international, 95-99
legumes, root crops, and vegetables, 93-95
networks and interactions with national programs, 96-98
nurseries, 95-96
private sector programs, 104-108, 110-114
public sector programs, 102-104, 110-114
recommendations, 114-116
and yields, 2
Crop varieties
centers of diversity, 35
desirable characters, 35
genetic diversity, 60-61
genetically heterogeneous populations, 61-62
protection, see Patents; Proprietary initiatives
see also Vulnerability of crop varieties
Crops
area and farm value of, 64
directories, 208
quarantines, 261-262
regions of diversity and regions of production, 350-351
Cross-licensing, 108
Cross-pollinating species, 61, 157, 158
Cultivars
defined, 408
selection for traits, 32
see also Varieties
Cyclosporin, 249
Cytoplasmic male sterility, 59, 76, 78, 80
D
Data bases
address and address codes in, 209-210
central crop, 89, 208, 215, 217, 362-364
collections, 213-215
development, 91
DNA sequence, 23, 38, 197-199, 203
international crop germplasm, 217, 352, 353, 362-363
microbial culture collections, 240-241, 255
recommendations, 203-204, 216-217
Denmark, 85
Descriptors and descriptor states, 162, 165, 181, 205, 206-207, 209
Developing countries
crop genetic resources, 6, 15, 40
environmental funding, 27
genetic diversity of crops, 16, 27, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 80-81, 114
germplasm banks in, 42, 87, 90-91, 92
maize germplasm trade, 291
microorganism applications in, 252
MIRCEN-sponsored collections, 253
ownership issues, 13, 24-25, 27, 101, 279, 282, 290, 299-300
potato breeding programs, 294
plant protection legislation, 282
private sector role in, 112-113, 115
public sector role in, 113
quarantine policies, 275-276
recommended roles, 26-27, 129, 301, 345-346
seed organizations, 113
use of germplasm resources, 180
yield increases, 92, 188
see also Conflicts over genetic resources
Diagnostic probes, patents, 286
Differential survival, 157-158
Dioecious species, 159
Disease
transmission by embryo transfer, 196-197
see also Epidemics;
Pathogens;
individual pathogens
DNA
artificial chromosomes, 198
defined, 408
introduction from other species, 31
markers, 121, 199, 201-202, 224
measure of variation, 121
plasmid libraries, 23
probes, 10-11, 23, 52, 199, 200-202, 204, 220, 224
randomly amplified polymorphic, 202
recombinant technology, 189, 203
transformation technique, 11, 31, 38, 197, 202
DNA sequences
data banks, 23, 38, 197-199, 203
from dead materials, 38-39, 198, 201
as genetic resources, 38, 197-198
restriction fragment length polymorphisms, 23, 67-68, 121, 199-202
Documentation
compatibility between systems, 209-210, 211-212
deficiencies in, 140-141
descriptive information, 8-11, 206-207
environmental conditions, 208-209
of evaluation efforts, 165-166
of genetic resources, 205-217
importance, 38
and management of collections, 205
recommendations, 21, 187, 216-217
status report, 213-214
technology development and, 215-216
and use of systems, 181, 212-213
see also Information on germplasm collections
Domesticated species
in situ conservation, 127-128
plant-pathogen relationships, 60
Dot blot tests, 11
Double cropping, 59
Drosophila spp. (Fruit flies), 37, 138, 219, 220
Dutch elm disease (Ceratocystis ulmi,)58
Dwarf bunt (Tilletia controversa),58, 70
E
Earworms (Heliothis zea),73
Eastern Europe
genetic resources work, 350, 352
security of collections in, 42
Ecogeographical surveys, 124-125
Economic assessment of genetic resources
contributions of international collections, 317-318
Hedonic pricing method, 308-309
incorporation into advanced cultivars and, 307-308
institutional releases and, 312
landrace appearance and, 312-313
markets, 304-306
origins and conclusions in varieties and, 313
pedigree analysis, 310
price evaluation methods, 306-309
regression analysis of data, 313-316
recommendations, 319-320
rice, 309-318
valuation, 303-304
varietal releases and, 310-311
Ecotypic differentiation, 155
Empirical studies
of allelic diversity, 141-145
of genetic diversity and, 136-139
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, 356
Endangered species, 275
Environmental conditions
and allelic frequency, 143
documentation, 208-209
for evaluation experiments, 164
and genetic variation in characters, 121
and genetic vulnerability, 51, 55, 60, 79
heterogeneity and, 60
meteorological data bases, 208-209
and pest populations, 78
seed regeneration and, 160
tolerance to, 252
Epidemics
blast, 77
brown planthopper, 16
bunt, 70
chestnut blight, 58
costs of, 80
Dutch elm disease, 58
evaluation of, 164
heterogeneity and, 60
leaf blight, 75
movement of pests into new areas, 58
Periconia root rot of sorghum, 175
potato late blight, 36, 55, 58
powdery mildew, 79
shoot fly, 70
southern corn leaf blight, 16, 36, 59, 67, 99-100
Erosion control, 66
Escherichia coli,219, 242, 249
Escuela Té cnica Superior de Ingenieros Agron ómos, 363
European
Association for Research on Plant Breeding, 352, 361, 364
Community, 24, 240, 266, 283, 285-286, 354
Cooperative Program for the Conservation and Exchange of Crop Genetic Resources, 88, 352
corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis),61, 259
Culture Collections Organization, 240
data bases, 353
genetic resources work, 352-354
germplasm banks, 352-354
and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization, 267
Molecular Biology Laboratory, 198
Patent Convention, 284
Program on the Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources, 354
Evaluation of accessions
breeders' contribution, 21
characterization and, 161
communication among germplasm users, 165
control of exotic germplasm, 164
core subsets and, 170
costs, 90
defined, 408-409
documentation, 9-10, 165-166, 182-183, 215
environments or sites for, 164
IBPGR role, 89-90
importance, 182-183
large-scale, systematic, 162-163
multidisciplinary approach, 162, 163, 165
recommendations, 187
resistant or tolerant species, 164
sample size, 163
supplies of seed or materials, 163
test planning and implementation, 163-164
and use of germplasm, 162, 182-183, 206
verification of data, 164-165
Evolution, molecular, neutral theory of, 135
Evolutionary processes, and germplasm use, 184-185
Ex situ conservation
and accessibility of germplasm, 6-7
collections, 356
in situ methods combined with, 128
of perennials, 190
selection pressures, 160
Exchange of germplasm
data base, 194
demand for, 35
and genetic diversity, 100-101
in vitro cultures and, 194-195
international programs, 26-27, 266
introduction of old pests, 1
and pathogen/pest introduction, 262, 263-264
proprietary rights and, 24, 25, 100-101, 107-108, 288, 299-301
quarantine and, 264-265, 266-268
recommendations, 24-27, 276, 301
resistance breeding and, 69
scientific code of conduct for, 300-301
for vegetables, 95
in vitro conservation and, 194-195
see also Proprietary rights;
Quarantine
Exotic germplasm
breeders' avoidance of, 62-63
control during evaluation, 164
dissemination of, 95
documentation, 165
enhancement of, 95-96
and genetic vulnerability, 80
introgression from, 74, 134, 178, 186
in maize hybrids, 73-74
screening, 178
sources, 178
tolerance and resistance traits from, 74-75
and yields, 178
Exotic pathogens and pests, 58, 259-260, 262, 263
Eyespot disease (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides), 21
F
Federations of Culture Collections, 241
`Field bindweed, 259
Filamentous fungi
antibiotics from, 249
Coprinus sp., 244
enzyme transfer to yeasts, 249
freeze-drying, 246
information sources, 240
Neurospora crassa,242
preservation problems, 242, 244
Schizophyllum sp., 244
viruses in, 245-246
Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), 58
Florida, 73
Flowers and ornamentals, 105, 106
Fodder crops, 120
Food and Agriculture Organizations, 5, 25, 40, 57, 132
Biennial Conference, 324-325
Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, 13, 15, 26, 41, 325, 328, 332, 365, 376, 378
exchange of germplasm, 91
definition of plant genetic resources, 226
genetic stocks defined by, 219
International Fund for Plant Genetic Resources, 343
International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, 41, 26, 226, 325-331, 339, 365, 378, 379-380
internationalization through, 92, 376, 378
Panel of Experts on Plant Exploration and Introduction, 37, 360, 364
phytosanitary certificates, 264, 266
recommended role, 26, 378, 379-380
Resolution 681, 324-325
technical conferences, 37, 322, 365
Food plants, number of species, 31
Food product development, 104
Forage and Range Research Laboratory, 122
Forages, 9, 104-106, 120, 122, 125, 129, 142, 178, 371
Forbs, 178
Fossils, as genetic resources, 39
Fruit flies (Drosophila spp.), 37, 138, 219, 220
Fuelwood, 120
Fungal Genetic Stock Center, 242
Fungi
entry pathways, 269
habitat conservation, 248
pathogens, 36, 49, 57, 59, 242, 247
perennial lichen-forming, 248
pest control with, 252
preservation, 246-247
species number and richness, 245
see also Bread molds;
Filamentous fungi
Fusarium kernal rot, 51
G
Gel electrophoresis, 199
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Uruguay Round, 13, 280
Gene pools, 86
Genetic diversity
areas of, 322
biotechnology and, 4
brand names and, 101
in core subsets, 19-20
defined, 409
empirical studies, 136-139
enhancement and stabilization strategies, 66-67
environmental factors and, 8
enzyme variants, 138-139
and exchange of germplasm, 100-101
habitat destruction and, 32
importance, 173
measures of, 135-137
in primitive and modern varieties, 60-61
proprietary rights and, 100-101, 107, 279
qualitative or discretely inherited characters, 137-138
quantitative characters, 136-137
quarantine and, 276
and sampling strategies, 141-145
Genetic drift, 19, 147, 154, 156, 158-159, 161, 171, 409
Genetic engineering, 324
microorganisms, 249
patents, 286
Genetic integrity
differential survival and, 157-158
genetic drift and, 158-159
monitoring during seed storage, 166
outcrossing and, 157-158
principles of maintaining, 10, 156
regeneration and, 18-19, 132, 154-155, 148, 170
storage and, 132
and use of systems, 182
Genetic Maps,235
Genetic reserves, 120-121, 122-123
Genetic resources
accessing, 6-14
activism, 324
agricultural endowment, 2-4
dead materials as, 38-39, 198, 201
defined, 409
exchange, see Exchange of Germplasm
and food supply, 29-30
incorporation into advance cultivars, 307-308
global, 4
markets, 5
need for, 4-6
ownership, 40-42
threats to, 5
see also Germplasm
Genetic shift, 154-155, 157, 161, 170, 171
Genetic stock collections
accessioning of stocks, 231, 235
advisory board, 237-238
of agriculturally relevant, 221, 222, 227-229
biotechnology and, 220
breeding lines contrasted with, 226-227
components, 224-226
data management, 231, 235-236, 238
demand for, 236
development and location, 221-224
dissemination of seed, 231
examples, 229-236
importance and use, 31, 220-221, 236
introduction of germplasm resources into, 307-308
management, 223-224, 227-229, 231, 234-235
problems, 221
recommendations, 236-238
single-gene or single-trait variants, 224, 412
Genetic stocks
alien addition and substitution lines, 225
chromosome number variants, 225
chromosome structure variants, 225
classes, 30-31
electrophoretically detectable protein, 224
morphologic and physiologic variants, 224
near isogenic lines, 225
RFLP variants, 224
single-gene or single-trait variants, 31, 224, 412
transposable elements, 224
wild relatives, 225-226
Genetic uniformity, 16, 47-50, 52-53, 55, 62, 67, 82
Genetic vulnerability, 36-37
to abiotic stress, 51
agronomically related, 59
assessment and monitoring recommendations, 17, 81-83
changes in, 59-60
critical factors and assumptions, 48-49
and crop diversity since 1970, 67-81
current levels, 80-81
in developing countries, 114
environment and, 51
to exotic pathogens, 58
IARC programs and, 99
monocultures and, 50-51
in new regions, 58
and pesticide treatment, 602
prediction of, 68
varietal development of germplasm and, 61-63
and varietal replacement over time, 63-66
Genetics Society of America, 221, 228-229
Germany, 37, 122, 213, 214, 240, 284
Germplasm
defined, 409
demand for, 11
enhancement, 20-21, 63, 91, 95-96, 111, 112, 143, 184, 185-186, 200
evaluation of, see Evaluation of accessions
global concerns, 37-40
nature of, 29
see also Use of germplasm
varietal development, 61-63
see also Exotic germplasm;
Genetic resources
Germplasm banks
linkages with breeders, 91
size concerns, 42
storage capacity, 87
see also Collections of germplasm;
Seed
Germplasm users
of active collections, 178-179
communication among, 165
perceptions of systems, 179-180
workers' communications with, 180, 183
Global Environmental Facility, 27, 342
Global Plant Genetic Resources initiative, 42
Golden mosaic virus, 94
Gossypium somalense,126
Grain
conservation status, 8
public sector research, 104
small, 104
varietal dominance, 64
Grape gall louse, 34
Grapes
genetic vulnerability, 79
pathogens and pests, 36-37, 58
resistance in, 76
Grasses, 33, 104-106, 114, 178, 371
Grassy stunt virus, 76, 77, 305, 308
Gray leafspot disease( Cercospora zeaemydis),57
Greece, 240
Green bridge effect, 18
Green leafhopper (Nephotettix spp.), 77, 308
Green revolution, 26, 110, 322, 409
Greenbug (Schizaphis graminium),70
Groundnuts (Arachis spp.),125, 368
Gypsy moth, 259
H
Hand pollination, 159
Hard red winter wheat, 70, 174, 176-177
Herbarium specimens, 39
Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor),70
Heterogeneity, genetic, and epidemics, 60
Human immunodeficiency virus, 249
Human tissue plasminogen activator, 249
Hungary, 284
barley, 185
collections used for, 62
defined, 410
microorganizations, 249
and proprietary rights, 280-281, 291
RFLP analysis, 199
and seed industry development, 108-109
seed regeneration and, 156, 157, 305-306
wheat, 174
of wild species, 60
I
In situ conservation
and accessibility of germplasm, 6, 7
costs and funding, 22
DNA probes and, 202
of domesticated species, 6, 127-128
ex situ methods combined with, 128
high-priority crops, 125
on microorganisms, 43, 247-248
monitoring, 126
national programs, 122-124
Native Seeds/SEARCH, 128
in protected areas, 125-127
range of species and genetic diversity, 118-119
targets of sampling strategies, 121
in traditional agroecosystems, 127-128
of wild species, 6, 18-19, 118, 120-125
In vitro conservation, 38
advantages, 190
of animals, 196-197
collection of germplasm, 193-194
disadvantages, 190
exchange of germplasm, 194-195, 276
laboratory facilities, 193-194
storage, 192-193
Inbreeding/inbred species
complete self-pollination, 155, 160, 161
defined, 410
depression, 158-159
RFLP analysis, 200
seed regeneration and, 160, 161
India
agricultural production, 18
Central Rice Research Institute, 309
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, 310
restrictions on germplasm distribution, 289
rice programs, 76, 293, 309-318
Indonesia, 76, 77, 115, 264, 293
Information on germplasm collections
Barley Genetics Newsletter,233-236
core subsets, 20
descriptive, 206-207
floppy disks/magnetic media, 208, 212
Genetic Maps,235
microfiche, 212
on-line, 208
other collections, 207-208
printed materials/catalogues, 208, 212-213
quality of, 206-207
sources, 207-209
standardization of, 209-210, 216-217
technology development, 215-216
see also Documentation
Information systems, see Computers/computerization of collection data; Data bases
Insecticidal crystal protein gene, 249
Institut für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzuchtung der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft, 214
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, 213, 291
Institut sur Recherche de Huile etOléagineaux, 295
Institut voor Plantenziektenkundig Ondersoek, 242
Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícola, 97
Insulin, 249
Integrated pest management, 18, 77
Intellectual property rights, 42
and exchange of germplasm, 24
international conventions, 281
national statutes, 280-281
recommendations, 24
see also Patents;
Proprietary rights
Inter-African Phytosanitary Council, 267
International agencies, conservation roles of, 91-92
International agricultural research centers (IARC), 366, 374
administration, 37
agronomic practices, 66, 97, 99
allocations for conservation, 87
breeders' use of data from, 62
control of, 333-334
effectiveness and achievements, 40, 92-93, 97, 98, 99
enhancement of germplasm, 95-96
establishment, 37, 92, 322, 335, 361
IBPGR interaction with, 90
in vitro cultures, 194-195
legume, root crop, and vegetable collections, 93-95
monitoring role, 52
national program support, 92-97, 377
resistance screening, 95
see also individual centers
International Barley Genetics Symposium, 233
International Biological Program, 37
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR), 5, 15, 25 , 39, 361
acquisition efforts, 86
activities, 364
budgets, 322
control of, 333-334
criticisms of, 40-41
crop directories, 208
crop inventories, 214
evaluation role, 89-90
facilities, 93
formation, 37, 40, 85, 322, 361
germplasm bank development, 86-89, 132, 290
global network, 365-366
IARC interaction with, 90
in situ conservation barriers, 126
and national programs, 90-91, 126
political issues, 322
Regional Committee for Southeast Asia, 180
standard descriptor lists, 181, 209, 366
sources of samples, 333
technical conferences, 41
viability threshold for seed regeneration, 166
International Center for Agricultural Research in Agroforestry, 39 , 374
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, 9, 39, 362
International Congress of Culture Collections, 253
International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants , 282, 283
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 9, 39-40, 195, 366
International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, 9, 40, 75, 94, 96, 374
International issues
ownership of germplasm, 13-14, 15, 27, 40-42
trade restrictions, 13
see also Conflicts over genetic resources
International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), 40
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), 40, 98, 363
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 40, 85-86, 361
International Plant Protection Convention of 1951, 24, 266
International programs
breeders' dissatisfaction with, 180
breeding programs, 308
consortia, 378-379
constraints on, 14-15, 41-42, 374-375
crop data bases, 362-364
global genetic resources network, 132, 365-366
recommendations, 25-27, 379-380
role, 364-365
see also individual programs
International Rice Germplasm Center, 293
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), 5, 38, 40, 92
alternative farming practices, 66
back-up collection, 132
catalog, 209
characterization activities, 162
computer system, 214
control methods, 164
data base, 363
effectiveness, 88
enhancement of germplasm, 186
exchange of germplasm, 293
Genetic Evaluation and Utilization Program, 163
genetic uniformity studies, 52-53
nurseries, 96
test crosses, 87
varietal development, 81
viability threshold for seed regeneration, 166
International Rice Testing Program, 98
International Salmonella Center, 242
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources , 91, 125
International Union of Biological Sciences, 240
International Union of Microbiological Societies, 240
International Wheat and Barley Genetics Symposia, 221
Intra-accession random pollination, 158
Introduced species
pathogens from, 58
see also Exotic germplasm
Introgression, 63, 74, 134, 178, 186
Irish potato famine, 36
Isoalleles, 137
Isolation methods, 10, 157, 158
Isozyme analysis, 20, 67, 138, 158, 167
J
Japan, 37, 78, 87, 115, 241, 285-286, 290, 293
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense),259
Junta del Acuerdo de Cartagena, 267
K
Kansas, 174
Karnal bunt (Tilletia indicia),70, 262, 265
Kenya, 85
Kora National Reserve, 126
maize production, 74-75
Kenyan Seed Company, 75
Keystone International Dialogue on Plant Genetic Resources, 13, 15 , 42, 114, 332
Kora National Reserve, 126
Kudzu (Pueraria lobata),259
L
Land-grant universities, 24, 102, 111, 112, 288, 292
defined, 410
genetic stability, 16
genetics of, 60
in situ conservation, 118, 127-128
origins, 322
seed regeneration, 160-161
threats to, 2
use trends, 69
wheat, 174
Latin America
beans, 114
genetic resources work, 355-356
legumes, 114
rice breeding program, 97
Latin American Maize Project, 81, 89, 184
Leaf blight (Alternaria triticinia),73, 75
Leaf rust (Puccinia recondita),65, 70
Legumes
collections, 5, 9, 93-95, 178, 368, 371
conservation status, 8
defined, 410
domestication, 33
public sector research, 104
quarantine restrictions, 265
seed production in developing countries, 114
Lepidopteran larvae, 252
Lettuce mosaic virus, 273
Lima beans, 33
Livestock
in vitro conservation, 196-197
see also Cattle;
Poultry
Locusts, 269
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 198
Lupin, 368
M
Maize (Zea mays),263
area planted and farm value, 64
biotechnology research107, 200
collections, 5, 9, 132, 290, 367
conservation status, 8
core subsets, 168
cultivated, 144-145
economic value, 319
Ecuador 573
environmental stresses, 8
evolutionary processes and use of, 184, 185-186
exotic germplasm, 73-74
genetic stocks, 229
IARC varieties released in developing countries, 93
international conservation efforts, 89
Iowa Stiff Stalk Synthetic, 73, 185-186
landraces, 73-74
Lancaster Sure Crop, 73
with nonviable pollen, 59
patents, 290-292
plant variety protection certificates, 291
pollination control, 159
private sector programs, 105, 106, 110, 290-291
programs, 81
public sector research, 104, 290
resistance, 72, 74-75, 200, 292
sampling strategies, 141, 144-145
tissue culture techniques, 292
Tuxpeno-Hickory King, 74
varietal turnover, 74
vulnerability and diversity, 52, 61, 65, 72-75
wild relatives, 18, 123-124, 144
Maize bushy stunt mycoplasma, 73
Maize chlorotic dwarf virus, 73
Maize chlorotic mottle virus, 73
Maize streak virus, 58, 73, 75
Mali, 77
Managed nature reserves, 126
Managed resource areas, 126
Management of genetic resources
biotechnology and, 189, 203-204
characterization, 20, 161-162. 408
costs, 317
documentation and, 205
historical background, 1
information needs for, 206
monitoring seed viability and genetic integrity, 166
recommendations, 18-21, 22-23, 170-172, 203-204
redundancy among collections, 166-170
sample size considerations, 7-8
and use of, 180
see also Evaluation of accessions;
Seed regeneration
Mango (Mangifera spp.),125
McClintock, Barbara, 224
Measurement, of genetic vulnerability, 52-53
Mediterranean fruit fly, 259
Mendel, Gregor, 1
Metarrhizium sp., 252
landrace conversation, 128
maize collection, 37, 38, 132, 144, 145
teosinte reserves, 123-124, 144
wheat pathogens, 265
Microbial culture collections
categories, 241
documentation, 254-255
freeze-drying and liquid nitrogen preservation, 246-247
funding, 241-242
genetic stock collections, 222
in situ conservation, 247-248
international coordination of, 241
laboratory suppliers, 241
management, 154-155
number of species in, 243
organization, 240-242
patent depositories, 285-286, 297-298
pathogen-reference, 43
problems, 43
resources, 242-243
stability in, 245-247
traditional preservation methods, 246
Microbial genetic resources, 43
agricultural role, 249-252
centers, 240
conservation of diversity, 7, 244-245
data bases, 240
defined, 43
directory/catalog of, 240-242
genetic engineering and, 249-251
in situ conservation, 43
industrial applications, 250-252, 284-285, 298
inventory, 244-245
metabolite exploitation, 248-249
proprietary rights to, 284-286, 297-298
recommendations, 253-255
resources in culture collections, 242-244
sexual processes, 246
species number and richness, 245
Microbial Information Network Europe, 240, 255
Microbial Information Service, 241
Microbial Strain Data Network, 240, 243, 255
Micropropagation, 194
Minor crops
landrace conservation, 127
public sector plant breeding programs, 110
vulnerability and diversity, 78-80
Mites, 269
Moko disease (Pseudomonas solanacearum), 58
Molecular conservation technologies, 22
polymerase chain reaction, 200-201
randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers, 121, 201-202
and redundancy problems, 182
restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, 20, 67-68, 121, 199-200
see also DNA
Monarch butterflies, 269
Monitoring
advanced materials, 175
in vitro storage and, 191
seed viability and genetic integrity, 158, 166
Monoclonal antibodies, 286
Monocultures, 16, 18, 36-37, 48, 50-51, 66, 67, 82
Monomorphism, 138
Mutations, 33, 137, 166, 190, 242, 295;
see also Genetic stock collections
Mycorrhizae, 252
N
National Academy of Sciences, 16
National Institutes of Health, 230, 235
National parks, 126
National Plant Genetic Resources Board, 99-100, 299
National programs
breeding, 307-308
constraints on, 14, 81, 86-87, 90-91, 98, 124
costs, 114
in developing countries, 81, 114
emphasis on, 376-377
exchange of accessions, 348
IARC collaboration with, 92, 96-98
IBPGR interaction with, 90-91
in situ conservation, 122-124
participants, 348-349
purpose, 347
recommendations, 26-27
sectorialism and, 124
status of, 349-359
strategic importance of collections, 20
structure, 347-348
technology adaptation and transfer role, 97
National Research Council, 68, 69, 72, 99-100
National Science Foundation, 230, 236
National Seed Storage Laboratory, 35, 89, 132, 133, 154, 165, 231, 234, 235, 359
National Small Grains Collection, 182
Native Americans, 128
Native Seeds/SEARCH, 128
Natural monuments, 126
Natural selection, 1, 32, 50, 53-54, 60, 136, 159-160, 185
Nature reserves, 122-125
Nectarines, 78
Nematodes, 269
Netherlands, 37, 173, 213, 240, 242, 294
Neutral allele
and core subset size, 169
defined, 410
frequency, 159
model, 135-136
New Zealand, 358-359
N.I. Vavilov All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Plant Industry, 349, 352
Niger, 77
Nigeria, 293
Nordic Gene Bank, 213
Nordic Register of Culture Collections, 241
North America
genetic resources work, 359
pests or pathogens introduced into, 259
North American Plant Protection Organization, 267
North Carolina State University, 362
Nurseries
disease and insect, 164
and exotic germplasm, 95-96
seed regeneration in, 157, 158
Nuts, 122
O
Oats, 8, 104, 105, 106, 141-144, 322, 367
Oil crops, 8
Oil palm, 125, 172, 191, 289, 294-295, 323
Oil Palm Genetics Laboratory, 294
Oilseeds, 370
Open pollination, 159
Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria, 267
Outbreeding
multiplication, and phenotypic changes, 160
sexual reproduction in, 155-156
Outcrossing/outcrossers
contamination from, 157-158
defined, 411
and genetic variability, 61, 160-161
interaccession, 157
seed regeneration, 157-158, 160-161
teosinte to maize, 123
Ozone, 79
P
Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia, 295
Palm species, 122
Panama, 195
Panicum maximum, 126
Papua New Guinea, genetic resources work, 358-359
Passport data, 9-10, 20, 21, 63, 161, 165, 166, 171, 181, 182, 206 , 209, 212, 215, 216, 232, 411
Abitibi case, 285
Allen case, 284
Argoudelis case, 285
Berger case,285
biological materials, 286
cattle and poultry, 295-297
corn hybrids, 42
defensive use of, 25
Deposit of Biological Materials case, 285
depository samples, 285-286, 297-298
on diagnostic probes, 286
Diamond v, Chakrabarty case, 284, 285
disclosure requirements, 101, 208, 285
and exchange of germplasm, 107-108
Feldman v. Aunstrup case, 285
Hibberd case, 283, 284, 286, 291
Hybritech, Inc., case, 286
legislation, 280
litigation, 283-284
Lundak case, 285
maize, 290-292
Mancy case, 285
microbes, 246, 284-285, 297-298
oil palm, 294-295
Pfizer case, 289
Pioneer Hi-Bred Ltd. case, 283, 284
potatoes, 293-294
private sector breeding programs and, 107
Rabies Virus case, 285
and research use of materials, 289
rice, 292-293
and public sector programs, 112
on traits, 286
transboundary effects, 283-284
utility, 101
and value of germplasm, 102
vegetatively propagated plants, 280
Pathogens
entry pathways, 269-270
environmental enhancement of effects, 57-58
exotic, 58
major, evolution of, 55-56
minor, enhancement of, 56-57
monitoring evolution of, 52
of quarantine significance, 262, 268-269
Peanuts, 9, 64, 80, 93, 105, 106, 122, 229
Pedigrees, 52
Penicillium strains, 249
Perennial crops, 61, 190, 373, 411
Periconia root rot of sorghum, 175
Peru, 294
Pest control, quarantine and, 264
Pesticides
natural insecticides, 252, 298
research, 105
Pests
biocontrol, 252
biotype changes, 16
entry pathways, 269-270
monitoring evolution of, 52
of quarantine significance, 262, 268-269
risk analysis, 270-273
Philippines, 36, 38, 76, 77, 87, 132, 195, 293
Phylloxera, 36-37
Pierce's disease of grapes (Xylella fastidiosa), 58
Pine trees, 191
Pinus merkusii, 123
Pioneer (seed company), 110
Pioneer populations, 126
Plant breeders
interests in landraces and wild species, 21, 178-179
linkages with germplasm banks, 91
rights, 42, 92, 101, 295, 324, 331, 335
role in conservation, 21
Plant breeding
cost per new variety, 107
in developing countries, 26
number of companies conducting programs, 105
private sector role, 42, 104-108, 110-114
process, 60
and productivity gains, 63
proprietary protection and, 103, 283
public sector role, 102-104
Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, 363
Plant disease epidemics, 36
Plant genetic resources
nature of, 30-31
risk associated with transfer of, 272
see also Genetic resources
Plant Genetic Resources Center (Ethiopia), 207
Plant-pathogen relationships
evolutionary nature, 53-55
regional movement of crop species and, 58
types, 55-60
Plant variety certificates, 13, 42, 101, 110, 112, 281, 283, 291
Plantation cultures, 58
Plants
importation of propagative materials, 262
in vitro conservation, 196-197
proprietary rights on, 281-284
see also Crops
Plasmids, 245-246, 249, 252, 286
Plum pox virus, 265
Political issues, 321-324, 327
Pollen, cryopreservation, 193
Pollution control, by microorganisms, 252
Polymerase chain reaction, 200-201, 203
Populus ilicifolia,126
Porcine viruses, 196
Potato late blight (Phytophthora infestans),55, 58, 268
Potato golden nematode, 259
Potatoes, 190
area planted and farm value, 64
breeding programs, 195
clones, 172
collections, 5, 9, 93, 195, 294, 369
conservation status, 8
detection of pathogens, 267
exchange of germplasm, 194-195, 276
genetically engineered, 119
IARC releases in developing countries, 93, 94
in vitro cultures, 194-195
patents, 293-294
public sector research, 104, 293-294
resistance to pathogens and pests, 55-56, 76, 119
risk from importation, 270-271
virus detection, 276
Poultry, patents, 288, 296-297, 299
Powdery mildews (Erysiphe spp.), 56
E. betae, 79
E. graminis, 70
Private sector
breeding programs, 104-108, 110-114
developing-country role, 112-113
expenditures, 107
number of companies in plant breeding, 105
recommended role, 302
rice development, 293
scientific personnel, 106
Proctoctists, 243
Programa Regional Cooperativo de Papa, 81
Proprietary rights
to animals, 284
and breeding activity, 279
control issues, 287-289
and exchange of germplasm, 24, 25, 100-101
and genetic diversity, 100-101, 107, 279
and germplasm flows from developing countries, 279
human cell lines, 286
to hybrid corn, 42
implications of, 298-301
international impacts, 15, 101-102, 112-114, 279, 287-290
litigation, 283-287
on living beings, 280-287
to microbes, 284-286
to plants, 281-284
price issues, 287
and private sector programs, 104-108, 279
and public sector breeding programs, 102-104, 112
recommendations, 301-302
related rights, 286-287
and research allocation, 289-290
and seed industry restructuring, 108-110
species differences in, 298-299
see also Patents
Protected areas
categories, 125-126
conservation focus, 124
defined, 120
genetic reserves, 120-121
in situ conservation in, 120-121, 125-127
land area, 126
recommended use of, 129
Protozoa, 246
Prunus species, 12, 78-79, 124, 265
Pseudomonas spp., 252
P. syringae, 252
Pseudorabies virus, 196
Public networks, 52
Public sector
biotechnology funding, 111, 112
breeding program decline, 102-104
focus of research, 110, 111, 112
maize breeding efforts, 290
proprietary protection and, 102-104, 112, 292-294, 301
rice development, 292-293
Q
Quarantines
and access to genetic resources, 12
biologic basis, 266-267
biotechnology and, 10, 12, 194, 200, 204
defined, 411
detection methods, 267
and exchange of genetic resources, 264-267
first, plant, 34
and genetic diversity, 276
geographic basis, 268
and global transfer of plant genetic resources, 262-273, 275-277
historical background, 1
implementation, 12
importation of genetic resources, 273-274
in vitro collections and, 194
international activities, 24
as pest control strategy, 264
phytosanitary certificates, 264, 266
policies and practices, 24, 275-277
recommendations, 32-24, 274-277
risk reduction, 260-262
significant pests and pathogens, 268-269
and size of collections, 167
species subject to, 260-262
uses, 259
R
Random genetic drift, 156, 159, 160
Recommendations
agronomic management strategies, 82-83
assessment and monitoring of crop vulnerability, 15-18, 81-83
back-up collections, 151
biotechnology, 22-23, 202-204, 274-275
collection of germplasm, 151-152
conflict resolution, 344-346
crop breeding programs, 114-116
data base development, 116, 203-204, 238
developing-country programs, 26-27, 129, 301, 345-346
documentation, 21, 187, 216-217, 238
economic assessment, 319-320
evaluation of accessions, 187
exchange of germplasm, 24, 25, 26-27, 276, 301
funding mechanisms, 27, 236-237, 345, 380
genetic enhancement programs, 20-21, 186
genetic stability enhancement strategies, 17-18
genetic stock collections, 236-238
in situ conservation, 18, 22, 128-129
in vitro tissue cultures, 22, 203
international conservational efforts, 115-116, 379-380
investment recommendations, 320
management of genetic resources, 18-21, 170-172, 203-204
multilevel collaborations, 28
national and international programs, 25-27, 345-346, 379-380
proprietary rights, 24-25, 301-302
protected areas for conservation, 129
quarantine policies, 23-24, 274-277
redundancy elimination, 20, 171-172
research, 23-25, 129, 172, 203-204, 274-275, 320
sampling and sample size, 151-152
size of collections, 18-20, 129, 171
training of germplasm workers, 172, 275-276
use of germplasm, 21, 115-116, 186-187, 203-204
Regeneration
in tissue culture, 191
see also Seed regeneration
Regional programs, 96-97, 98, 114, 115
Registration of cultivars, 183-184
Relationships,see Plant-pest relationships
Resistance
alleles, 54
boom-and-bust cycles, 77
breakdown, 53-54
crop rotations and, 76
cytoplasmic inheritance and, 76
durability, 56
environmental stresses and, 51, 57, 102
evaluation of, 164
exotic germplasm and, 73-74
genes, 52
genetic markers, 200
and high yield, 61
and host-pathogen relationships, 55, 56
kinds of, 54-55
life cycle and, 59
mixture-interaction, 55
of modern varieties, 60-61
to mosaic viruses, 94
in multiline varieties, 67
polygenic/horizontal, 54, 98-99
to potato late blight, 55-56
pyramiding of genes and, 56, 61, 70, 82
screening, 95
sources of germplasm for, 268
strategies for increasing, 50
uniformity and, 50
vertical, 54, 55, 56, 76-77, 98
Restriction fragment length
polymorphisms, 20, 23, 158, 167, 199-200, 201-202, 220, 224, 412
Restrictive distribution agreements, 288
Rice (Oryza spp.)
alternative production practices, 66, 293
area planted and farm value, 64, 316-317
blast epidemic, 77
characterization, 162
Chinese hybrids, 76
Cina variety, 76
collections, 5, 9, 43, 132, 292-293, 309-310, 317, 367
conservation status, 8
continuous cropping, 78
documentation, 209
domestication, 33
economic analysis, 43, 316-318
fertility restoration gene, 53
genetic enhancement programs, 20-21
genome sequence, 199
high-yield varieties, 75-76, 77, 92, 115, 314
hybrid varieties, 293
importance, 292
institutional background, 309-310
institutional releases, 93, 312
international collections, 317-318
national collections, 309-310
origins and inclusions in varieties, 313, 315
O. glaberrima, 309
O. sativa, 309
patents, 292-293
pests and pathogens, 16, 59, 76-77, 305, 308
pricing methods, 309-318
private sector breeding programs, 105, 106, 293
public sector research, 104, 292-293
regression analysis of data on, 313-316
released varieties in India, 310-313
semidwarfism, 59, 75, 76, 77, 93, 96
test crosses, 87
value of germplasm stocks, 317
varietal releases, 310-311, 314
viruses, 16
vulnerability and diversity, 16, 52, 53, 75-78, 96, 114-115
see also International Rice Research Institute
Rice yellow mottle virus, 77
Robertson, D. W., 234
Rockefeller Foundation, 38, 335
Rootworms (Crambus caliginosellus), 73
Rubber (Hevea spp.), 13, 58, 125, 172, 268, 274, 323
H. brasiliensis, 264
Rural development, wild gene pools and, 120
Russia, 174
Russian wheat aphids, 50
Rusts
conservation methods, 247, 248
Puccinia spp., 55-56, 58, 65, 70, 73, 74-75, 247
resistance to, 55-56, 68-69, 72, 96
Uromyces appendiculatus, 68-69
weed control with, 252
Ryegrasses, wild, 122
S
Sahel, 57
St. Lawrence Islands National Park, 126
Salt levels, 51
Salmonella spp., 242
Sample size
allelic frequency and, 7-8, 138, 148-149, 169
constant strategy, 169
core subsets, 169
ecological factors, 150
for evaluation of accessions, 163
inbreeding depression and drift and, 158-159
isozyme analysis and, 138
maintenance and, 181-182
minimal number, 149-150
mobility and, 7
population factors, 150
practical considerations, 147-148
recommendations, 151-152
seed regeneration and, 10, 18-19, 158, 159, 171, 181-182
and use of systems, 181
variable strategy, 169
Sampling/samples
documentation, 207
for evaluation experiments, 163
expedition and explorations, 35
first multiplication, 150
formulation of strategies, 139-141
limiting factors, 134-135
lower-frequency alleles, 146-147, 148-149
measures of genetic diversity and, 134, 135-138
microbes, for patents, 285-286
mobility and, 7
neutral allele model and135-136, 169
number of sites, 150-151
population factors, 150
principles and standards, 38
recommendations, 151-152
and use of systems, 181
San Jose scale, 259
Sandwich assay process, 286
Sary-Chelck Reserve, 124
Scale insects, 269
Seed
artificial, 193
banks, 38;
see Collections of germplasm;
Germplasm banks
catalogue legislation, 283
conservation funding through, 27
dissemination of, 231
germination tests, 154
increase, 231
inviable, 39
management data, 215
risk from importation, 270, 273
sales information, 52
small-scale production, 113-114
storage alternatives, 190-197
viability, 89, 154, 156, 166, 412
world market, 110
Seed industry
in developing countries, 26, 112-113
development, 34
hybrid breeding methods, 108-109
proprietary initiatives and, 108-110
response to resistance breakdown, 72
restructuring, 108-110, 324, 334-336
varietal losses, 65-66
Seed regeneration
breeding systems, 155-156, 161
characterization and, 162
contamination from outcrossing, 157, 158, 182
counter selection, 158
defined, 412
differential survival during, 157-158
genetic drift, 154, 158-160, 170
and genetic integrity, 10, 132, 154-155, 156-160, 170, 182
inbreeding depression and drift, 158-159
of inbreeding species, 160
intervals, 170-171
of landraces or wild species, 160-161
for multiplication for distribution and use, 155, 170
natural selection, 10, 159-160
problems, 154, 156, 171, 182, 366
for rejuvenation of stored accessions, 155, 170
selection during, 158
size of germplasm collection and, 18-19
type of collection and, 134
viability threshold, 166
wild species, 154
Seed Savers Exchange, 65
Self-pollinating species, 61-62, 155, 157, 160, 161
Seminario Panamericano de Semillas, 343
Senegalese grasshopper, 57
Septoria leaf blotch (Septoria nodorum),70
Sexually propagated varieties, 281
Shoot fly (Atherigona spp.), 70
Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, 123-124
Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella musicola), 58
Singapore, 86
Slender wild oat (Avena barbata), 8, 141-144, 145
Smuts, 248
Snails, 269
Soft red winter wheat, 70, 174
Somaclonal variations, 192
Sorghum, 33
area planted and farm value, 64
conservation status, 8
diversity, 101
IARC varieties released in developing countries, 93
pathogens and pests, 175
private sector breeding programs, 105, 106, 110
productivity gains, 63
proprietary lines, 108
public sector research, 104
short-stature, 123
tropical-to-temperate adaptation, 185
wild species, 126
Sorghum arundinaceum,126
South American leaf blight (Dothidella ulei), 58, 264, 268
Southern African Development and Coordination Conference, 357
Southern corn leaf blight (Helminthosporium maydis), 16, 36, 48, 67, 76, 99-100
Soviet Union (former)
germplasm collections, 9
see also Commonwealth of Independent States
Soybeans, 33
area planted and farm value, 64
conservation status, 8
diversity, 101
genetic stocks, 229
patent, 283
private sector breeding programs, 104-106, 110
productivity gains, 63
public sector research, 104, 110
quarantine restrictions, 265
research, 95
trade restrictions, 13
vulnerability, 65
Stalk borers (Papaipema nebris), 73
Stem borers, 77
Stem rust (Puccinia graminis), 55-56, 70
Storage of germplasm
base collections, 132
cryogenic, 132, 172, 190, 192-193, 196-198, 203
encapsulation, 192-193, 246-247
freeze-drying, 246-247
lives, 132
microorganisms, 246-247
packaging, 134
research needs, 172
slow growth, 192
vitrification, 192-193
Stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis), 70
Striped borers (Chilo zacconius), 77
Subsistence agriculture, 61
Sugar beets, 64, 79, 105, 110, 370
Sugarcane, 1, 61, 172, 190, 371, 373
Sulfur dioxide, 79
Sunflowers, 79, 80, 105, 106, 119, 321-322, 372
Sweet potato, 8, 9, 39, 64, 79-80, 93, 95, 96, 104, 172, 195, 369, 373
Switzerland, 85
T
Taiwan, 293
Taxonomy, 208
Tea, 289
Teosinte (Zea diploperennis), 18, 123-124
Texas, 73
Thailand, 76, 78, 123, 290, 293, 307
Theophrastus, 33-34
Thermophilus aquaticus, 200
Threatened species, tissue samples from 198
Timber industry and crops, 120, 122, 123, 129
Tissue culture
oil palms, 295
storage, 38, 39, 194, 275, 412
Toluene, 252
Tomatoes, 95
genetic diversity, 80
genetic stock collections, 5, 9, 93, 229-232, 370
introduction to Americas, 173
public sector research, 104
Totipotent regeneration, 190
Trade name, 284
Trademarks, 284
Training of germplasm workers, 172, 275-276
Traits
of agronomic importance, 162, 174
of economic importance, 112
with high-yield potential, 61
patents on, 286
qualitative or discretely inherited, 137-138, 162, 174
quantitative, 136-137, 162, 200
for temperate breeding, 73
tolerance and resistance, 73
Transgenic organisms, 197
Trees, in situ conservation, 118-119, 121, 372
Tristeza disease, 262
Trypanotolerance Network, 98
Turcicum blight (Helminthosporium turcicum), 75
Turkey wheat, 174
U
Unilever, 295
Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, 101, 335
United Kingdom, 37, 63, 86, 173, 213, 241, 285, 295
United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development, 13, 14, 27, 339, 343, 375
Conference on Human Environment, 253, 361
Development Program, 27, 208, 342
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 240
Environment Program, 27, 41, 91, 342
World Intellectual Property Organization, 101
United States
agricultural production, 3
crop genetic diversity, 16, 78, 114-115
genetic stock collections, 229-232
global impact of activities in, 99-114
landrace conservation, 128
microbial culture collections, 241
patents, 285-286, 287-288, 293-294
Plant Patent Act of 1930, 280, 335
Plant Variety Protection Act, 91, 100, 104, 107, 109, 280, 323-324
potatoes, 293-294
rice breeding programs, 115, 292-293
wheat breeding programs, 72, 115
see also U.S. entries
Universidad Politechnica, 363
University of
Birmingham, 213
California, Davis, 229-232
Malaya, 363
Maryland, 253
Reading, 363
Southampton, 362
Use of germplasm
biotechnology and, 203-204
breeders' perceptions and practices, 62-63, 88, 114-115, 174-179, 180-183, 206
core subsets and, 20, 88-89, 169
documentation and, 181, 212-213
evaluation of accessions and, 162
genetic stock collections, 31, 220-221, 236
historical background, 173-174
management of collections and, 180
microbial culture collections, 43, 248-252
motoring advanced materials, 175
performance advances, 175, 178-179
recommendations, 21, 115-116, 186-187, 203-204
redundancy and, 182
sampling constraint on, 181
unit of utilization, 181
wild species, 119
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service, 39, 62, 78, 100, 186, 230-231, 359
biotechnology funding, 111
Bureau of Plant Industry, 183
Cooperative State Research Service, 100
Crop Advisory Committees, 78-80, 165
Forage and Range Research Laboratory, 122
monitoring programs, 64
Seed and Plant Introduction Section, 34
seed sales data, 52
U.S. National Plant Germplasm System
accessions, 359
changes in, 99-100
distribution of germplasm, 184
genetic stock collection support, 229
Genetic Resources Information Network, 212, 216, 232, 236
outside expertise, 165
problems, 89
recommendations for, 216
registration of cultivars, 183-184
structure, 35
users' perceptions of, 179-180
U.S. Patent Office, 34
U.S. South Regional Performance Nursery, 70
V
Varietal mixtures, 17
Varieties
copies of, 101
IARC, released by national authorities, 93
kinds, 30
market changes, 64-65
replacement, 51
resistant, 54
see also Cultivars;
Genetic stocks;
Landraces;
Plant breeders' lines
Vegetables
biotechnology research, 107
private sector programs, 105, 106, 107
public sector research, 104
rotations, 66
Vegetatively propagated crops, 88, 190, 194, 271-172, 276, 280, 281-182
Vernonia galamensis,126
Vigna spp., 368
Viruses
detection, 276
in filamentous fungi, 245-246
nematode-transmitted, 273
preservation problems, 245-246, 247
seedborne, 273
species in collections, 243
see also individual species
Vulnerability of crop varieties, see Genetic vulnerability
W
W. R. Poage Pecan Field Station, 11, 179
West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), 40
accessions globally, 166
area planted and farm value, 64
conservation status, 8
continuous cropping, 78
disease-resistant hybrids, 21, 34
economic value, 319
exchange of germplasm, 262
genetic enhancement programs, 20-21
high-yielding varieties, 70-72, 92, 115
hybridizations, 174
IARC varieties released in developing countries, 93
industrial restrictions, 67
introduction to Americas, 173-174
landraces, 174
Nacozari variety, 72
nurseries, 96
performance, by cultivar, 176-177
pests and pathogens, 50, 58, 65, 70, 72, 221, 262, 265
private sector breeding programs, 105, 106
productivity gains, 63
public sector research, 104, 110
quarantine restrictions, 262, 265
resistance to pathogens, 55-56, 70, 72, 96
tetraploid, 33
Triticale, 93, 105
T. aestivum,21
vulnerability and diversity, 52, 64, 65, 69-72, 114-115
yields, 174
Wheat leaf blight (Septoria sp.), 59
White pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), 58, 259
Wild and weedy relatives, 62, 86, 150, 153, 226, 294, 412-413
Wild goat grass (Aegilops ventricosa), 21
Wild oats, 262;
see also Slender wild oats
Wild species, 4
allelic and genotype diversity, 141-144
conservation areas, 120-121
defined, 413
gene pool classifications, 31
as genetic resources, 21, 35, 119-121, 225-226
habitat losses, 36
high priorities for conservation, 125
in situ conservation, 18-19, 22, 118, 121-127, 129
natural selection, 32
pathogen/pest introduction with, 262-263, 276
population dynamics studies, 125
in protected areas, 126
seed regeneration, 154, 160-161, 163
self-pollinating, 141-144
uses, 119
value of cultivars, 119
Wine grapes, pests, 36-37
Witch weed, 259
Woody stocks, 36
World Barley Genetic Stock Center, 233
World Conservation Union, 91
World Data Center for Microorganisms, 240, 244
World Federation of Culture Collections, 240, 244, 253
World Health Organization, 242
World Wide Fund for Nature, 91
Y
Yeast Genetic Center, 242
Yeasts (Saccharomyces sp.), 220
bakers', 298
freeze-drying, 246
information sources, 240
liquid nitrogen preservation, 246
S. cerevisiae,242
transfer of enzymes to, 249
Yellow borers (Scirpophaga incertulas), 77
Yemen, 263
Z
Zambesi teak (Baikiaea plurijuga), 123
Zambia, 123
Zentralinstitut fur Genetik und Kulturpflantzenforschung, 213
Recent Publications of the Board on Agriculture
Policy and Resources
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993), 408 pp., ISBN 0-309-04875-3.
Managing Global Genetic Resources: Livestock (1993), 294 pp., ISBN 0-309-04394-8.
Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics (1993), 720 pp., ISBN 0-309-04749-8.
Agriculture and the Undergraduate: Proceedings (1992), 296 pp., ISBN 0-309-04682-3.
Water Transfers in the West: Efficiency, Equity, and the Environment (1992), 320 pp., ISBN 0-309-04528-2.
Managing Global Genetic Resources: Forest Trees (1991), 244 pp., ISBN 0-309-04034-5.
Managing Global Genetic Resources: The U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (1991), 198 pp., ISBN 0-309-04390-5.
Sustainable Agricultural Research and Education in the Field: A Proceedings (1991), 448 pp., ISBN 0-309-04578-9.
Toward Sustainability: A Plan for Collaborative Research on Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (1991), 164 pp.,ISBN 0-309-04540-1.
Investing in Research: A Proposal to Strengthen the Agricultural, Food, and Environmental System (1989), 156 pp., ISBN 0-309-04127-9.
Alternative Agriculture (1989), 464 pp., ISBN 0-309-03985-1.
Understanding Agriculture: New Directions for Education (1988), 80 pp., ISBN 0-309-03936-3.
Designing Foods: Animal Product Options in the Marketplace (1988), 394 pp., ISBN 0-309-03798-0; ISBN 0-309-03795-6 (pbk).
Agricultural Biotechnology: Strategies for National Competitiveness (1987), 224 pp., ISBN 0-309-03745-X.
Regulating Pesticides in Food: The Delaney Paradox (1987), 288 pp., ISBN 0-309-03746-8.
Pesticide Resistance: Strategies and Tactics for Management (1986), 480 pp., ISBN 0-309-03627-5.
Pesticides and Groundwater Quality: Issues and Problems in Four States (1986), 136 pp., ISBN 0-309-03676-3.
Soil Conservation: Assessing the National Resources Inventory, Volume 1 (1986), 134 pp., ISBN 0-309-03649-9; Volume 2 (1986), 314 pp., ISBN 0-309-03675-5.
New Directions for Biosciences Research in Agriculture: High Reward Opportunities (1985), 122 pp., ISBN 0-309-03542-2.
Genetic Engineering of Plants: Agricultural Research Opportunities and Policy Concerns (1984), 96 pp., ISBN 0-309-03434-5.
Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series and Related Titles
Nutrient Requirements of Horses, Fifth Revised Edition (1989), 128 pp., ISBN 0-309-03989-4; diskette included.
Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, Sixth Revised Edition, Update 1989 (1989), 168 pp., ISBN 0-309-03826-X; diskette included.
Nutrient Requirements of Swine, Ninth Revised Edition (1988), 96 pp., ISBN 0-309-03779-4.
Vitamin Tolerance of Animals (1987), 105 pp., ISBN 0-309-03728-X. Predicting Feed Intake of Food-Producing Animals (1986), 95 pp., ISBN 0-309-03695-X.
Nutrient Requirements of Cats, Revised Edition (1986), 87 pp., ISBN 0-309-03682-8.
Nutrient Requirements of Dogs, Revised Edition (1985), 79 pp., ISBN 0-309-03496-5.
Nutrient Requirements oh Sheep, Sixth Revised Edition (1985), 106 pp., ISBN 0-309-03596-1.
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Revised Edition (1984), 90 pp., ISBN 0-309-03447-7.
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, Eighth Revised Edition (1984), 71 pp., ISBN 0-309-03486-8.
Futher Information, additional titles (prior to 1984), and prices are available from the National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418, 202/334-3313 (information only); 800/624-6242 (orders only); 202/334-2451 (fax).