Index
A
Abuse and neglect,
see Child abuse
Adjudication, 2, 157-162, 164-181 (passim), 222, 226
see also Attorneys;
Constitutional law;
Diversion;
Probation and parole;
Sentencing
adult courts, general, 13, 18-19, 154, 155, 204-209;
see also Waiver to adult justice system
age factors, general, 1, 167, 170-173, 206-209 (passim), 212, 215-216
black persons, 167, 231, 232, 237, 250, 254-257
child abuse, 162
conviction rates, 160
data submitted by courts, 156
developmental factors, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 157, 166
double jeopardy, 159-160
due process, 158-159, 160, 244-245
gender factors, 167, 203, 204, 214
historical perspectives, 13, 154, 157-162, 167, 214-215, 220-222
international perspectives, 17, 18-19, 20
peer group interventions vs, 135
preventive interventions, 125
projection methodology, 62
racial factors, 6, 8, 156, 167, 216, 232, 237, 247, 249, 250-259 (passim)
Adult criminal justice system, ix, 4, 5, 19, 161, 192
adult courts, general, 13, 18-19, 154, 155, 204-209;
see also Waiver to adult justice system
blended juvenile and adult sentencing, 5, 210-211, 219-220, 223
blurring of lines between juvenile system and, 4, 13
conviction rates, 160
historical perspectives, 157, 159
incarceration, 6, 12, 17, 161, 217-218, 219, 220-222, 225, 231;
see also “blended...” supra
international perspectives, 17, 19, 21
police encounters with adults, 164
African Americans,
see Black persons
see also Probation and parole;
Surveillance
see also Developmental factors;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors;
Status offenses
adjudication, general, 1, 167, 170-173, 206-209 (passim), 212, 215-216
adult criminal justice system, age of waiver to, 1, 25, 206-209 (passim), 215-216, 220, 250
after care, 196-199
arrest rates, 10, 14, 27, 28, 32-48, 322
child abuse, 96-97
community age structure, 96-97
criminal justice system, understanding of, 16
criminal responsibility, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 157, 206
definition of juvenile, 23, 236
detention, alternatives to, 180-183
elderly persons, 330, 331, 332, 336
homicide, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 62-63, 207, 209, 322, 325, 326, 333, 336-344
incarceration, 186-187, 220, 221, 222
international perspectives, criminal responsibility, 17, 18, 20
job training, 151
juvenile justice system, 16, 157, 167, 170-173, 175-176, 180-183, 206-211 (passim), 215, 256
parental discipline, 78
peer influences, 80-82
prevalence, 10, 27, 28, 32-56, 64, 68, 319, 320-348
preventive interventions, 8, 105, 152
projections of crime rates, 319, 320-348
property crime, 48-53
risk factors, general, 10-11, 67-69, 71, 72, 73, 76-77, 85, 87, 96-97, 105
school suspension/expulsion, 85, 87
suicide, 45
teenage parents, 76-77, 102, 105, 116, 242
victim-offender mediation, 175-176
victims of crime, 29, 30, 35, 42
victim's perception of offender, 29, 35, 64
violent crimes, 10, 33-48 (passim), 54, 68, 207, 322, 323, 324, 326-329;
see also “assault”, “homicide,” and “rape” supra
Aid to Families with Dependent Children, 109
Alcohol and drug abuse, 14, 23, 56-57
see also Smoking
adult justice system, waiver to, 214-215, 216, 220
black persons, 56, 63, 97-98, 258
cocaine, 9, 57, 71, 97, 98, 104, 190, 258, 317, 330
community-based interventions, 141, 143, 146-147
community-level factors, 93, 97-98
crack cocaine, 45, 46, 97, 98, 330
defined, 317-318
detention, alternatives to, 182-183
detention for, 177
developmental factors, 73-74
gender factors, 56-57, 59, 102, 203
historical perspectives, 54, 55, 56-57
incarceration, 45, 186, 187, 190-191, 220
peer group interventions, 137
prenatal exposure, 9, 71, 104-105, 108
prevalence, 43-44, 45-46, 54, 55, 56-57, 59, 74, 330, 332
preventive interventions, 9, 108, 122, 129, 137, 141, 143, 146-147, 152-153
racial factors, 56, 63, 97-98, 258
school-based interventions, 122, 129
status offenses, 54, 55, 59, 74, 160
testing offenders, 194
American Bar Association, 211
American Correctional Association, 226
American Indians
adult justice system, waiver to, 216, 220
juvenile justice system, 8, 155, 234, 258
residential segregation, 91
sentence length, 253
Annie E. Casey Foundation, 179
Arkansas, 187
Arrest rates, 32, 34, 62, 90, 322
see also Prevalence;
Recidivism;
Uniform Crime Reports
after care, 197
age factors, 10, 14, 27, 28, 32-48, 322
black persons, 3, 34, 56, 63, 97-98, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235-237, 244, 246, 254, 255, 256, 257
community-based interventions, 141, 143
curfews and, 145
data sources, 26-29
drug offenses, 54, 55, 56-57, 97-98
employment effects, 151, 197, 199, 203
gender factors, 34, 56, 57-60, 164, 203, 244, 245-246, 322
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 10, 28-29, 64
police policies, 2, 6, 26, 27, 29, 46-47, 163-164, 244, 245-246
preventive interventions, 111, 141, 143
property crime, 27, 32, 33, 34, 48-53
racial factors, 3, 34, 56, 63, 97-98, 230-237 (passim), 244-249 (passim), 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
research methodology, 10, 26-29, 37, 42, 61, 62
state-level factors, 26, 63-64
status offenses, 54-56
violent crimes, 37-48, 62-63, 146
defined, 316
arrest rates, 230
incarceration, 222
school suspension, 85
Assault
see also Homicide
community-based interventions, 141
defined, 316
detention for, 177
prevalence, 2, 32, 36, 37, 39, 41, 46-48, 235, 322
racial factors, 235, 236, 238, 242, 246
victim-offender mediation, 175
Attention deficit disorder, 9, 71, 72, 73, 104, 190
Attitudes
fear of victimization, 1, 99, 106, 133, 143, 145, 155, 158, 162, 316, 328
gun culture, 98
mentoring, 149
peer group interventions, 136-137
toward police, 246
racial bias, 220-222, 242, 244-246 (passim), 250, 251-253
school suspension, 85
stigma of delinquency, 31, 157, 174, 212, 216, 242, 328;
see also Confidentiality
students, 122
superpredators, ix, 7, 25, 328-329
about violence, general, 330
Attorneys
effectiveness of, 166-167
prosecutorial filings, waivers to adult system, 5, 155, 207, 208-209, 214, 215, 216, 223
prosecutors, other, 19, 156, 226, 247, 259, 329
right to representation by, 166
Australia, 18-19
Automobile theft,
see Motor vehicle theft
B
Behavioral modification interventions, 11, 112, 118, 124-125, 130-131, 192, 193-194, 225
contingent reinforcement, 123, 131, 147
mentoring, 147
adjudication, 167, 231, 232, 237, 250, 254-257
adult justice system, waiver to, 216, 220, 221, 231, 232, 233, 250, 257-258
arrest rates, 3, 34, 56, 63, 97-98, 230, 231, 233, 234, 235-237, 244, 246, 254, 255, 256, 257
community-level factors, 90-92, 237-238, 240-241, 258
gangs, 95
homicide victims, 42
incarceration, 220, 221, 222, 232, 233, 255, 256, 257
juvenile justice system, 3, 6, 8, 167, 216, 220, 221, 230-258 (passim)
marital status, 252
policing policies, 243-244, 246
poverty, 237-238, 240, 245, 258
see also “arrest rates” supra
probation, 233
risk factors, general, 56, 63, 76, 85, 86, 90-92, 95, 97-98, 237-241, 242, 252
self-reports of delinquency, 31
sentencing, 252-253
single-parent families, 76, 252
suicide rates, 46
victims of crime, 244
Brain functioning, 16
Breed v. Jones, 159-160
Britain,
see United Kingdom
Bureau of Justice Statistics, 64, 225, 333
Bureau of the Census, 323-324, 336, 340
Burglary, 27, 32, 33, 49, 50, 52, 322
defined, 316
gender factors, 59
racial factors, 238
victim-offender mediation, 175
C
Canada, 17
after-school interventions, 149-150
homicides, 45-46
Capital punishment, 21, 157, 187, 211, 252-253
Car theft,
see Motor vehicle theft
Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement, 10, 186, 225
Child abuse, 3-4, 78-79, 96-97, 103
court involvement, 162
defined, 317
incarcerated juveniles, 186-187
preventive interventions, 111, 116
Children in Custody Census, 186
see also Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement
Children's Defense Fund, 211
Cocaine, 9, 57, 71, 97, 98, 104, 190, 258, 317, 330
see also Crack cocaine
Community-level factors, 21
see also Familial factors;
Local government;
Peers and friends;
Rural areas;
School-based interventions;
Schools, other;
Surveillance
see also Probation and parole
alcohol and drug abuse, general, 93, 97-98
alcohol and drug abuse interventions, 141, 143, 146-147
arrest rates and interventions, 141, 143
assault, interventions, 141
black persons, 90-92, 237-238, 240-241, 258
community service, 172-173, 179, 227
counseling, 140-141
detention/incarceration, alternatives to, 7, 141, 176, 195, 200, 213, 224
diversion, 170-173
economic development, 90-92, 96, 103, 145-146
socioeconomic status, 139, 141-142, 143, 147, 148
educational attainment, 141, 147
employment effects of criminal embeddedness, 201, 203
gangs, 83, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 144-145, 330
gender factors, 83, 93-94, 95, 96, 101
homicide, 146
housing, 139, 140-141, 142-144, 145, 240, 241
mass media interventions, 140-141, 147
multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
nutrition, 141
prenatal/perinatal care, 96
preventive interventions, general, ix, 4-6, 7, 20, 107, 138-151, 152, 170
racial factors, 90-92, 95, 96, 103, 147, 236, 237-238, 240-241, 259;
see also “segregation” infra
research methodology, 7, 138-151 (passim), 193
restorative justice model, 20, 156, 176, 195, 213, 223;
see also Mediation;
Restitution
risk factors, general, ix, 2, 3, 4, 11, 15, 66, 67, 79-80, 83-100, 103, 105, 330
segregation, 91, 92, 95, 96, 103, 236, 238, 240-241
smoking interventions, 141, 146-147
treatment of offenders in, 5-6
urban areas, 139, 142-144, 146-147
victim interventions, 141, 143, 145
violent crime, general, 97-99, 103, 145-146
Community service, 172-173, 179, 227
Conduct disorder, 3, 67, 73, 75, 100, 101, 190
Constitutional law, 158-160, 208
capital punishment, 211
double jeopardy, 159-160
due process, 158-159, 160, 244-245
Contempt charges, 204
Contingent reinforcement, 123, 131, 147
Correctional facilities,
see Detention;
Incarceration
Cost and cost-effectiveness factors, 12, 193, 226
after-school interventions, 150
detention/confinement, alternatives to, 7, 179
drug use, 98
early childhood interventions, 116, 118, 133, 134-135
incarceration, 155
peer group interventions, 135
prenatal interventions, 109, 116
property crimes, 48
community-based interventions, 140-141
detention, alternatives to, 180-181, 182-183, 247, 249
diversion and, 170
family, 170, 173, 174, 182-183, 184, 194, 196, 198;
see also “parent” infra
parent, 112, 113, 118, 136-137, 182-183, 184
probation and, 184
Courts,
see Adjudication
Crack cocaine, 45, 46, 97-98, 330
Curfews, 54, 55, 57-58, 145, 163, 179
after care, 194
defined, 318
D
Day care, 117-118
Death sentence,
see Capital punishment
Definitional issues, 23
academic tracking, 87
alcohol and drug abuse, 317-318
child abuse and neglect, 78-79
criminal delinquency, 162
diversion, 169
due process, 244(n.4)
juvenile justice, 156
probation, 185
racial disparity, 229-231
status offenses, 162
Uniform Crime Reports, 315-318
Delaware, 188
Demographic factors
see also Age factors;
Gender factors;
Marital status;
Race/ethnicity;
Rural areas;
Urban areas
detention, 177
projections of crime rates, 61, 319, 320, 336
Department of Education
Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, 1
Department of Justice, 10
see also Federal Bureau of Investigation;
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
Bureau of Justice Statistics, 64, 225, 333
Detention, 2, 4, 7, 156, 176-182, 223-224
see also Incarceration
adjudication and, 178, 179, 181
age factors in alternatives to, 180-183
attorneys, right to, 166
black persons, 178, 179, 182, 233
community-based alternatives to detention/incarceration, 7, 141, 176, 195, 200, 213, 224
community service, 172-173, 179, 227
costs of alternatives to, 7, 179
counseling as alternative to, 180-181, 182-183, 247, 249
familial factors, 178, 180-181
gender factors, 178, 179, 203-204
historical perspectives, 158, 159, 161, 162, 177
peers and friends, 178
police policies, 164
racial factors, 178, 179, 182, 232, 233, 247, 249
school-based alternatives to, 182-183
schools, impacts on education of detainee, 178
sentencing and, 177
status offenses, 176, 177-178, 180-182
urban areas, 179
Deterrence, 2, 4, 21, 85, 192, 210, 218, 330
see also Recidivism
Developmental factors, 1, 3, 5, 14, 15-16, 22, 66-106
see also Age factors;
Early childhood development;
Familial factors;
Parental factors;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors
adjudication,
criminal responsibility, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 157
right to an attorney, decision, 166
alcohol and drug abuse, 73-74
attention deficit disorder, 9, 71, 72, 73, 104, 190
conduct disorder, 3, 67, 73, 75, 100, 101, 190
hyperactivity, 9, 70, 71, 73, 104, 121, 129, 191
impulsivity, 9, 67, 70, 71, 72, 77, 100, 102, 104, 121, 131, 328
language development, 3, 72-73, 105
longitudinal studies, 67, 68, 72, 74, 75, 77, 105
research methodology, 66-67, 79
socioeconomic status and, 72
workshop agenda, 352-353
Diet,
see Nutrition
Disproportionate Minority Confinement initiative, 228-229
see also Race/ethnicity
community-level factors, 170-173
defined, 169
family counseling, 170, 173, 174
foster care, 7, 166, 172-173, 174-175, 224
mediation, 132, 170-171, 175-176;
see also “restitution” infra
peers and friends, 172-173
restitution, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 176, 179, 195, 223
restorative justice model, general, 20, 156, 176, 195, 213, 223
school-based interventions, 172-173
Divorce, 75
Double jeopardy, 159-160
job training, 151
Drug abuse,
see Alcohol and drug abuse
Due process, 158-159, 160, 244-245
E
Early childhood development, 3, 12, 67, 68, 70-74 (passim), 84-85, 95, 101, 105
see also Prenatal/perinatal risk factors
cost-effectiveness of interventions, 116, 118, 133, 134-135
employment and, 116
preventive interventions, 108-119, 123, 132-135, 138, 151-152
school-based interventions, 123, 132-133
Economic factors
see also Cost and cost-effectiveness factors;
Employment factors;
Funding;
Socioeconomic status
community-based, 90-92, 96, 103, 145-146
prevalence of crime, 330
see also School-based interventions;
Schools, other
after care, 196
detained persons, 223
incarcerated persons, 5, 11, 14, 186, 187, 188, 189-190, 223, 225
Educational attainment
community-based interventions, 141, 147
detained/incarcerated persons, 223
police, 245
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 189
Elderly persons, 330, 331, 332, 336
Electronic monitoring, 194
attention deficit disorder, 9, 71, 72, 73, 104, 190
conduct disorder, 3, 67, 73, 75, 100, 101, 190
hyperactivity, 9, 70, 71, 73, 104, 121, 129, 191
impulsivity, 9, 67, 70, 71, 72, 77, 100, 102, 104, 121, 131, 328
preventive interventions, 121, 123, 124, 126, 131
Employment factors
after-school interventions, 149
arrest rates, 151, 197, 199, 203
community-level factors, 201, 203
early childhood interventions, 116
job training/placement, 150-151, 196, 197-198
juvenile justice system involvement and, 5, 200-203
maternal employment, 14
mentoring, 147
parental employment, 14, 238, 239
peer factors, 201
racial factors, 202, 238, 239, 240
Ethnicity,
see Race/ethnicity
Europe, 17
F
Familial factors, 172-174
see also Child abuse;
Marital status;
Parental factors
after care, 194
community-based interventions, 4, 79-80, 95, 105, 139, 140-144
counseling, 170, 173, 174, 182-183, 184, 194, 196, 198
definition of offenses against family, 317
diversion and counseling, 170, 173, 174
foster care, 7, 166, 172-173, 174-175, 224
historical perspectives, 75
home visitation, 108-116 (passim), 118, 119
longitudinal studies, 77, 111-115 (passim), 118-119
mentoring, 149
multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
number of children, 77
peer influences, 81
preventive interventions, ix, 8, 20, 107, 108-120, 124-125, 135, 152
probation, 183
racial factors, 240
research methodology, 79, 108-120, 124-125, 135, 193
risk factors, general, 3, 15, 22, 69, 74, 75-80, 81, 95, 103, 105, 240, 330
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 10, 32-33, 35, 37-42, 49, 50, 64
see also Uniform Crime Reports
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 10, 28-29, 64
Federal government, ix, 7, 13, 225
see also Funding;
Legislation;
specific departments and agencies
incarcerated persons, treatment of, 11, 155
jurisdiction, 155
prenatal exposure to alcohol/drugs, interventions, 9, 105
preventive interventions, 105, 152
projections of crime and, 64-65
school interventions, 105
Females,
see Gender factors;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors
Firearms,
see Guns
Florida, 216
Food,
see Nutrition
Forecasts,
see Projections
Foreign-born persons,
see Immigrants
Foreign countries,
see International perspectives;
specific countries
Foster care, 7, 166, 172-173, 174-175, 224
France, 18-19
Friends,
see Peers and friends
after care, 200
community-based treatments, 7, 8, 213, 224
female juvenile offense research, 10
incarceration, federal funding requirements, 11, 155
incarceration, research on, 225, 226, 228-229
research, general, 64, 152, 153, 226-227, 228-229
state funding for preventive interventions, 153, 225
state juvenile justice systems, federal funding, 155
G
Gangs, 83, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 330
police policies, 144-145
in re Gault, 159
Gender factors, 108
see also Marital status;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors;
Rape;
Teenage parents
adjudication, 167, 203, 204, 214
adult justice system, waiver to, 214
arrest rates, 34, 56, 57-60, 164, 203, 244, 245-246, 322
burglary, 59
community-level factors and, 83, 93-94, 95, 96, 101
contempt charges, 204
curfew violations, 57-58
employment and justice system involvement, 201, 202
foster care, 175
gangs, 83, 93-94, 95, 98, 144-145, 330
incarceration, 102, 158, 186-187, 203-204
intelligence, 102
juvenile justice system, 10, 106, 156, 158, 164, 167, 175-176, 178, 179, 201, 202, 203-204, 214, 227
longitudinal studies, 101, 204
maternal behavior, general, 108
maternal employment, 14
mentoring, 148
see also “gangs” supra
prevalence, 34, 56, 57-60, 322, 328;
see also “arrest rates” supra
prostitution, 58
racial factors and, 67, 95, 96, 235, 241-242, 244
recidivism, 69
risk factors, 11, 57-60, 68, 69, 76-77, 83, 85, 93-94, 95, 96, 98, 100-102, 106
school-based interventions, 125
school suspension, 85
self-reports of delinquency, 31, 58
victims of crime, 101
victim-offender mediation, 175-176
violent crimes, 58, 59, 69, 203, 241-242, 328-329
General Accounting Office, 215, 250
Geographic factors, 90, 258, 322, 324
see also Community-level factors;
Rural areas;
State-level factors;
Urban areas
arrest data, 26
gender, juvenile justice system, 204
homicide, 42
residential segregation, 91, 92, 95, 96, 103, 236, 238, 240-241
Government role,
see Federal government;
Local government;
State government
Guggenheim Foundation, 1
adult justice system, waiver to, 209, 215
blacks, 98
community-level factors, 97, 98-99
gun/drug culture, 98
homicides, 2, 42-43, 44, 45-46, 47, 63, 98, 99
peer influences, 83
prevalence of, 2, 10, 42-47 (passim), 330
racial factors, 46
status offenses, 54
H
Health care
incarcerated persons, 188
Health insurance, detention and coverage, 178
Hispanics
adult justice system, waiver to, 216, 219, 220
classification of, 230
gangs, 95
juvenile justice system, 8, 34, 219, 220, 222, 230, 238-241, 246, 252, 258
policing policies, 246
preventive interventions, 117
risk factors, 85, 90-91, 95, 238-241, 252
school suspension, 85
socioeconomic factors, 238-239, 240
urban neighborhoods, 90-91
Historical perspectives, 2, 25, 107, 204-205, 320-329
see also Prevalence
adjudication, 13, 154, 157-162, 167, 214-215, 220-222
adult justice system, general, 157, 159
adult justice system, waiver to, 214-215, 220-222
age of criminal responsibility, 14
detention, 158, 159, 161, 162, 177
familial risk factors, 75
gangs, 93-94
incarceration, 157, 158, 160-161, 187, 220-222
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 28
police policies, 144, 160, 163
preventive interventions, 13, 161
sentence length, 218
status offenses, 54-56, 160, 161
suicides, 44-45
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), 28
urban neighborhoods, poverty, 90-91
violent crime, 34-48, 62-63, 155, 162, 322, 323, 324, 325, 332-335, 341-342
waiver to adult justice system, 214-215, 220-222
Homeless persons, 30
Home visitation, 108-116 (passim), 118, 119
Homicide, 3 see also
Suicide
adult justice system, waiver to, 207, 209, 214, 216
age factors, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 62-63, 207, 209, 322, 325, 326, 333, 336-344
alcohol and drug abuse and, 43-44, 45-46
black persons, 42, 98, 339-344
community-based interventions, 146
defined, 315
gun-related, 2, 42-43, 44, 45-46, 47, 63, 98, 99
international perspectives, 21, 45-46
prevalence, 1, 2, 21, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 42-46, 47, 62-63
projections, 3, 61, 63, 322, 325, 333-344
Uniform Crime Reports, 27, 28, 29, 37, 42
racial factors, 42, 98, 242, 253, 333, 339-344
robbery, homicide during, 28, 29
self-reports, 47
socioeconomic status, 90
waiver to adult justice system, 207, 209, 214, 216
“gun-related” supra
Housing, 139, 140-141, 142-144, 145 see also
Incarceration
homeless persons, 30
racial factors, 240, 241; see also
Segregation
Hungary, 18-19
Hyperactivity, 9, 70, 71, 73, 104, 121, 129, 191
I
Idaho, 218
Immigrants
incarceration, 221
juvenile justice system, 158
Impulsivity, 9, 67, 70, 71, 72, 77, 100, 102, 104, 121, 131, 328
Incarceration, 4, 5-6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 156, 166, 168-169, 186-191, 193, 213, 223-224, 226, 227, 328-329 see also
Probation and parole;
Sentencing
abuse of incarcerated children, 186-187
adult facilities, children in, 6, 12, 17, 161, 217-218, 219, 220-222, 225, 231
blended juvenile and adult sentences, 5, 210-211, 219-220, 223
after care, 194-200
age factors, 186-187, 220, 221, 222
black persons, 220, 221, 222, 232, 233, 255, 256, 257
Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement, 10, 186, 225
community-based alternatives to detention/incarceration, 7, 141, 176, 195, 200, 213, 224
community service, 172-173, 179, 227
condition of facilities, 6, 186-188, 224
cost factors, 155
drug offenders, 45, 186, 187, 190-191, 220
educational attainment and, 223
education of inmates, 5, 11, 14, 186, 187, 188, 189-190, 223, 225
federal funding requirements, 11, 155
funding of research on, 186, 193-194, 225, 226, 228-229
gender factors, 102, 158, 186-187, 203-204
health care, 188
historical perspectives, 157, 158, 160-161, 187, 220-222
immigrants, 221
international perspectives, 19, 20, 21
isolation/lockups, 11, 188, 193-194, 231, 225
job training, 151
Juvenile Residential Facility Census, 10
length of, 17, 19, 20, 21, 155, 156, 159, 161-162, 202, 211, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 224, 253
longitudinal studies, 191
mental health and illness, 5, 10, 150, 161, 186, 189, 190-191, 223, 257
nutrition, 187
property crimes, 220
racial factors, 219, 220, 221, 222, 228, 231, 232, 233, 249, 255, 256, 257, 259
rape, 187
recreational activities, 189, 193
research methodology, 186, 225, 226;
see also “funding of research on” supra
shock intervention programs, 8, 152-153, 192
state variations, 11, 156, 228
status offenses, 54
violent crime, 44, 186, 213, 219, 220
preventive interventions, 116, 121
race and, 230
school tracking and grade retention, 4, 9, 11-12, 83-84, 87-89, 103, 104
International convention on Civil and Political Rights, 211
International perspectives, 17-21
see also Immigrants;
specific countries
adult criminal justice system, 17, 19, 21
capital punishment, 211
criminal responsibility, age of, 17, 18, 20
incarceration/sentencing, 19, 20, 21
teenage parents, 77
violent crimes, 17, 20, 21, 45-46
Internet
drug offenses, 55
suicide, 46
see also Behavioral modification interventions;
Detention;
Diversion;
Education;
Incarceration;
Preventive interventions;
Recreational activities;
School-based interventions
after care, general, 194-200, 350-352;
see also Probation and parole;
Surveillance
multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
Italy, 18-19
J
Jails,
see Detention;
Incarceration
Japan, 18-19
Judicial proceedings,
see Adjudication
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act, 2, 13, 21, 54, 155, 161, 228
see also Status offenses
Juvenile justice system, 5-6, 4, 16, 18, 24, 62, 154-227
see also Adjudication;
Arrest rates;
Detention;
Incarceration;
Police policies;
Prevalence;
Probation and parole;
Waiver to adult justice system
age factors, 16, 157, 167, 170-173, 175-176, 180-183, 206-211 (passim), 215, 256
American Indians, 8, 155, 234, 258
black persons, 3, 6, 8, 167, 216, 220, 221, 230-258 (passim)
blurring of lines between adult system and, 4
defined, 156
diversion,
see Diversion
employment effects of involvement in, 5, 200-203
gender factors, 10, 106, 156, 158, 164, 167, 175-176, 178, 179, 201, 202, 203-204, 214, 227
Hispanics, 8, 34, 219, 220, 222, 230, 238-241, 246, 252, 258
historical perspectives, 5, 154-155, 203
local government, 155
mentoring, 148-149
public opinion, 25
racial factors, 2, 3, 6, 8, 22, 24, 34, 63, 156, 167, 216, 219, 220, 230-258 (passim)
research methodology, 163, 170-171, 175-176, 191-194, 229-231, 234, 235, 247
socioeconomic status, 158, 201, 237-238, 240, 246, 253
state funding for preventive interventions, 153, 225
state juvenile justice systems, federal funding, 155
violent crime, 155, 163, 186, 212, 213, 219, 220
Juvenile Residential Facility Census, 10
K
Kent v. the United States, 158-159, 207-208
L
Land, Kenneth, 319-348
Language development, 3, 72-73, 105
Larceny,
see Burglary;
Robbery;
Theft
Lawyers,
see Attorneys
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 189
foreign countries, 20
historical perspectives, 4, 13-14
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act, 2, 13, 21, 54, 155, 161, 228
state, 1, 5, 13, 25, 155-156, 157, 161-162, 165, 204-222
Litigation,
see Adjudication
Local factors,
see Community-level factors
see also Police policies
juvenile justice systems, 155
prenatal exposure to alcohol/drugs, 9, 105
projections of crime and, 64-65
status offenses, 54-56
Longitudinal studies, 12
alcohol and drug abuse, 74
developmental factors, 67, 68, 72, 74, 75, 77, 105
divorce, 75
family interventions, 111-115 (passim), 118-119
incarceration, mental health issues, 191
number of children in family, 77
parental punishment, 78
prenatal interventions, 109
preventive interventions, 111-115 (passim), 118-119, 121, 122
school-based interventions, 121, 122
teenage parents, 77
M
MacArthur Foundation, 1
Marijuana, 55
black persons, 252
divorce, 75
prenatal interventions, 109
single-parent families, 3, 14, 75-76, 92, 109, 242, 252
Massachusetts, 189
Mass media
community-based interventions, 140-141, 147
gang violence, 94
violence portrayed, 97, 99-100, 330
McCall, Patricia, 319-348
McKeiver v. Pennsylvania, 160
Mediation, 132, 170-171, 175-176
see also Restitution
Men,
see Gender factors
Mental health and illness, general, 4, 73, 118, 148, 173, 174
see also Alcohol and drug abuse;
Emotional factors
attention deficit disorder, 9, 71, 72, 73, 104, 190
community-level factors, 95-96
conduct disorder, 3, 67, 73, 75, 100, 101, 190
hyperactivity, 9, 70, 71, 73, 104, 121, 129, 191
incarceration, 5, 10, 150, 161, 186, 189, 190-191, 223, 257
suicide, 44-45, 46, 102, 188, 223
Methodology,
see Research methodology
Military service, 69
Minnesota, 196-197
Minority groups,
see Race/ethnicity
Monitoring the Future, 30, 36-37, 48, 49, 56
Motor vehicle theft
defined, 316
prevalence, 27, 32, 33, 51, 53, 325, 326
Multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
Murder,
see Homicide
N
National Center for Health Statistics, 42
National Center for Juvenile Justice, 156(n.1)
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 29-30, 64, 236-237, 246, 248-249, 321, 323
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 10, 28-29, 64
National Institute for Mental Health, 152
National Institute of Justice, 152
National Institute on Child Health and Human Development, 152
National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 36-37, 201
National Youth Survey, 190, 235, 246, 248-249
Native Americans,
see American Indians
Neglect,
see Child abuse
Neighborhoods,
see Community-level factors
New Jersey, 217
New Mexico, 216
Nutrition
community-based interventions, 141
incarcerated persons, 187
O
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), ix, 1, 10, 64, 152, 156(n.1), 200, 226, 231-232
Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement, 10, 186, 225
Disproportionate Minority Confinement initiative, 228-229
Outreach, 108-116
P
Parental factors, 3-4, 71, 75, 96-97, 103, 330
see also Child abuse;
Familial factors;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors
after-school interventions, 149
community-based interventions, 140-144
counseling, 112, 113, 118, 136-137, 182-183, 184
discipline, age factors, 78
disobedience/incorrigibility, 23, 24, 73, 101, 160, 162, 203;
see also Runaways
foster care, 7, 166, 172-173, 174-175, 224
home visitation, 108-116 (passim), 118, 119
intergenerational effects of criminality, 201, 202
mentoring and, 149
number of children, 77
preventive interventions, 5, 108-120, 126, 136-137, 151
school suspension, 85
single-parent families, 3, 14, 75-76, 92, 109, 242, 252
teenage parents, 76-77, 102, 105, 116, 242
Parole,
see Probation and parole
Peers and friends, 4, 15, 22, 69, 71, 74, 79, 80-83, 93, 135
after-school interventions, 150
age factors, 80-82
alcohol and drug abuse, 137
community-based interventions, 140-143, 147
counseling, 82, 132, 135, 136-137
detention and, 178
diversion, 172-173
early childhood interventions, 116, 138
employment effects of criminal embeddedness, 201
familial factors, 81
foster care and, 175
gangs, 83, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 144-145, 330
gun use, 83
mediation, 132
multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
preventive interventions, 82, 125, 135-138, 140-143, 151, 153, 172-173, 174
racial factors, 243
research methodology, 82, 125, 135-138, 140-143, 151, 153
school-based interventions, 125, 136-137
school suspension and expulsion, 85
violence, 83;
see also “gangs” supra
Police policies, 155, 162-164, 226
adults, encounters with, 164
arrest rates and, 2, 6, 26, 27, 29, 46-47, 244, 245-246
attitudes of police, general, 244, 245
attitudes toward police, general, 246
community factors, 144-146, 246
court referrals, 162
curfews, 54, 55, 57-58, 145, 163, 179
detention, 164
educational attainment, 245
gangs, 144-145
historical perspectives, 144, 160, 163
projections of prevalence, 62, 330
racial disparity, 6, 8, 243-247
research methodology, 144-145, 163, 247
school-based interventions, 126
socioeconomic status, 246
victims of crime, 163
violent crimes, 163
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors, 3, 12, 67, 69-71, 104-105
alcohol and drug abuse, 9, 71, 104-105, 108
community-level factors, 96
cost-effectiveness of interventions, 109, 116
preventive interventions, 9, 104-105, 108-115 (passim), 120, 151-152
racial factors, 238-239
teenage parents, 76-77, 102, 105, 116, 242
Prevalence, ix, 1, 2, 13, 17, 23-24, 25-65
see also Arrest rates;
Uniform Crime Reports
adjudication, 167
age factors, 10, 27, 28, 32-56, 64, 68, 319, 320-348
alcohol and drug abuse, 43-44, 45-46, 54, 55, 56-57, 59, 74, 330, 332
assault, 2, 32, 36, 37, 39, 41, 46-48, 235, 322
early childhood, 116
gender factors, 34, 56, 57-60, 322, 328
arrest rates, 34, 56, 57-60, 164, 203, 244, 245-246, 322
gun use, 2, 10, 42-47 (passim), 330
homicides, 1, 2, 21, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 42-46, 47, 62-63
projections, 3, 61, 63, 322, 325, 333-344
Uniform Crime Reports, 27, 28, 29, 37, 42
motor vehicle theft, 27, 32, 33, 51, 53, 325, 326
National Crime Victimization Survey, 29-30, 64, 236-237, 246, 248-249, 321, 323
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 10, 28-29, 64
projections,
crime rates, general, 7, 60-62, 64-65, 319-348
homicides, 3, 61, 63, 322, 325, 333-344
property crime, 27, 29-30, 32, 33, 34, 48-53, 322, 324, 331-332
racial factors, 3, 31, 34, 46, 56, 229, 235, 322
rape, 2, 27, 32, 37, 38, 40, 235
robbery, 2, 27, 28, 29, 32, 37, 39, 41, 235, 236, 322
violent crimes, 2, 13, 17, 20, 25, 32, 33, 34-48, 62-63, 155, 235, 322, 323, 324, 326-332 (passim)
Preventive interventions, ix, 1, 4-5, 12, 18, 21, 24, 107-153
see also Behavioral modification interventions;
Counseling;
Recreational activities;
School-based interventions
alcohol and drug abuse, 9, 108, 122, 129, 137, 141, 143, 146-147, 152-153
community-based, ix, 4-6, 7, 20, 107, 138-151, 152, 170
early childhood, 108-119, 123, 132-135, 138, 151-152
emotional factors, 121, 123, 124, 126, 131
familial, ix, 8, 20, 107, 108-120, 124-125, 135, 152
historical perspectives, 13, 161
juvenile justice system, 4
longitudinal studies, 111-115 (passim), 118-119, 121, 122
parental factors, 5, 108-120, 126, 136-137, 151
peer-group factors, 82, 125, 135-138, 140-143, 151, 153, 172-173, 174
prenatal, 9, 104-105, 108-115 (passim), 120, 151-152
projections, 3, 7, 60-62, 64-65, 319-348
research methodology, 8, 108-153 (passim)
sexual activity, 109
shock intervention programs, 8, 152-153, 192
socioeconomic status, 109, 117
teenage parents, 116
urban areas, 119-120
Prisons,
see Incarceration
Probation and parole, 111, 156, 165, 166, 168-169, 179, 182-186, 194, 195, 198, 226
see also After care
adult justice system, waiver to, 217
blended juvenile and adult sentences, 211
counseling, 184
court referrals, 162
defined, 185
historical perspectives, 158, 160, 184
job training, 151
peer group interventions, 135
status offenses, 184
violent crimes, 185
Projections
crime rates, general, 7, 60-62, 64-65, 319-348
homicides, 3, 61, 63, 322, 325, 333-344
Property crimes, 48-53, 331-332
see also Arson;
Burglary;
Motor vehicle theft;
Robbery;
Theft
adult justice system, waiver to, 216, 220
age factors, 48-53
arrest rates, 27, 32, 33, 34, 48-53
defined, 317
detention for, 177
gender factors, 58, 59, 60, 203
historical perspectives, 48-53, 324
incarceration for, 220
prevalence, 27, 29-30, 32, 33, 34, 48-53, 322, 324, 331-332
defined, 317
school property, 48, 49, 60, 123, 129
Prosecutors, 19, 156, 226, 247, 259, 329
waivers to adult system, 5, 155, 207, 208-209, 214, 215, 216, 223
Poverty,
see Socioeconomic status
Public opinion, 1, 2, 13, 99, 106, 133, 143, 145, 155, 158, 162, 316, 328
R
see also American Indians;
Asians;
Black persons;
Hispanics;
Immigrants;
White persons
adjudication, 6, 8, 156, 167, 216, 232, 237, 247, 249, 250-259 (passim)
adult justice system, waiver to, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 231, 232, 233, 250, 254-258
alcohol and drug abuse, 56, 63, 97-98, 258
arrest rates, 3, 34, 56, 63, 97-98, 230-237 (passim), 244-249 (passim), 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
assault, 235, 236, 238, 242, 246
bias, general, 220-222, 242, 244-246 (passim), 250, 251-253
burglary, 238
community-based interventions, 147
community-level factors, 90-92, 95, 96, 103, 147, 236, 237-238, 240-241, 259;
see also “segregation” infra
definitional issues, disparity, 229-231
detention, 178, 179, 182, 232, 233, 247, 249
developmental factors, 67, 72, 228
employment, 202, 238, 239, 240
gangs, 95
gender factors and, 67, 95, 96, 235, 241-242, 244
guns, 46
historical perspectives on bias, 220-222, 250
homicides, 42, 98, 242, 253, 333, 339-344
see also “segregation” infra
incarceration, 219, 220, 221, 222, 228, 231, 232, 233, 249, 255, 256, 257, 259
intelligence and, 230
juvenile justice system, 2, 3, 6, 8, 22, 24, 34, 63, 156, 167, 216, 219, 220, 230-258 (passim)
mentoring, 148
police policies, 6, 8, 243-247
prenatal/perinatal risk, 238-239
prevalence, 3, 31, 34, 46, 56, 229, 235, 322
preventive interventions, 117, 119-120
punitive policies, general, 13-14
research methodology, 8, 64, 229-231, 234, 235, 247, 248-249, 259-260
risk factors, 56, 63, 67, 72, 76, 85, 86, 90-92, 95, 96, 97-98, 103, 237-242, 252, 253, 254-258
robbery, 235, 236, 242, 246, 253
rural areas, 259
school suspension, 85
segregation, 91, 92, 95, 96, 103, 236, 238, 240-241
self-reports of delinquency, 31, 230, 235-236, 248-249
sentencing, 252-254
single-parent families, 76, 252
socioeconomic status, 237-239, 240, 246, 253
state-level disparities, 233, 234, 237, 239
suicide rates, 46
urban neighborhoods, 90-92, 250
victim-offender mediation, 175-176
victims of crime, other, 235, 238, 246, 253
victims' perception of offender, 64,236
violent crimes, general, 34, 230, 235, 241-242, 246, 333
workshop agenda, 353-354
Rape
adult justice system, waiver to, 214, 216
confidentiality of court proceedings, 213
defined, 316
incarceration, 187
prevalence, 2, 27, 32, 37, 38, 40, 235
Recidivism, 4, 7, 11, 155, 191, 193
see also Deterrence
adult justice system, waiver to, 215, 218-219, 223
detention, alternatives to, 181, 183
gender factors, 69
mediation, 176
school suspension, 85
Recreational activities, 93, 130, 136, 175
after-school programs, 149-150
incarcerated persons, 189, 193
Research methodology, 2, 10-12, 26-31, 62
see also Definitional issues;
Funding;
Longitudinal studies;
Self-reports of offenders
after care, 195-200
after-school interventions, 149-150
arrest data, 10, 26-29, 37, 42, 61, 62
committee study at hand, ix, 1-2, 21-22, 107, 349-354
community-based interventions, 7, 138-151, 193
detention and alternatives to, 176-183
developmental factors, 66-67, 79
diversion, 169-174
ethnographic, 94-95
familial factors, 79, 108-120, 124-125, 135, 193
familial interventions, 108-120, 124-125, 135
incarceration, 186, 193-194, 225, 226, 228-229
job training, 150-151
juvenile justice system, 163, 170-171, 175-176, 191-194, 229-231, 234, 235, 247
Juvenile Residential Facility Census, 10
mentoring, 147-149
multisystemic therapy, 174, 224
National Incident-Based Reporting System, 10
peer influences, 82
peer interventions, 125, 135-138, 140-143, 151, 153
police policies, evaluation, 144-145, 163, 247
prenatal interventions, 108-109
preventive interventions, 8, 108-153 (passim)
projections of crime, 60-62, 64-65, 319-346
racial factors, 8, 64, 229-231, 234, 235, 247, 248-249, 259-260
school-based interventions, 114, 118, 119-120, 121-135, 140-141, 146
Uniform Crime Reports, 10, 26-29, 63-64
victim reports, 29-30
Restitution, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 176, 179, 195, 223
Restorative justice model, 20, 156, 176, 195, 213, 223
see also Mediation
Risk factors, ix, 1, 3, 10-11, 24, 66-106
see also Age factors;
Alcohol and drug abuse;
Community-level factors;
Developmental factors;
Familial factors;
Geographic factors;
Interventions;
Peers and friends;
Preventive interventions;
Race/ethnicity;
Socioeconomic status
compound, 201, 231, 253, 254-258
Robbery
see also Burglary
defined, 316
prevalence, 2, 27, 29, 32, 37, 39, 41, 235, 236, 322
Uniform Crime Reports, 27, 28, 29
racial factors, 235, 236, 242, 246, 253
Runaways, 54, 56, 109, 160, 162
defined, 318
gender factors, 56, 57-58, 59, 101
Rural areas
attorney, right to representation by, 166
community-based interventions, 147
racial factors, 259
S
Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, 1
School-based interventions, 1, 4-5, 8-9, 11-12, 72-73, 107, 114, 118, 119-120, 121-135, 140-141, 146-147, 151, 152
after-school interventions, 149-150
alcohol and drug abuse, 122, 129
attendance, 124, 125, 130, 131, 132, 147, 148
counseling, 113, 131, 132, 133
detention, alternatives to, 182-183
diversion, 172-173
foster care and, 175
gender factors, 125
longitudinal studies, 121, 122
peer group interventions, 125, 136-137
research methodology, 114, 118, 119-120, 121-135, 140-141, 146
Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, 1
workshop agendas, 350
Schools, other, 4
see also Education;
Educational attainment
attendance, 30, 62, 87, 124, 125, 130, 131, 132, 147, 148, 162, 175
confidentiality of court proceedings, 212-213
detention and, 178
dropouts, 88, 104, 121, 147, 151
mass shootings, 342
property crime, damage to, 48, 49, 60, 123, 129
risk factors, age, 69, 72-73, 83-89, 103, 104, 122, 123
self-report data, 30
suspension/expulsion, 84-87, 104
tracking and grade retention, 4, 9, 11-12, 83-84, 87-89, 103, 104
workshop agendas, 349-350
Segregation, 91, 92, 95, 96, 103, 236, 238, 240-241
Self-reports of offenders, 2, 6, 10, 26, 30-31, 36-37
assault, 48
attendance, 124, 125, 130, 131, 132, 147, 148
child abuse, 79
co-offending, 64
diversion programs, 171
drug use, 56
homicide, 47
peer group interventions, 137
property crimes, 48
race/ethnicity, 31, 230, 235-236, 248-249
status offenses, 55
Sentencing, 5, 13, 44, 155, 166, 168, 104, 205, 210-212, 215, 217-218
see also Adjudication;
Adult criminal justice system;
Incarceration;
Probation and parole
attorneys, right to, 166
black persons, 252-253
blended juvenile and adult sentencing, 5, 210-211, 219-220, 223
capital punishment, 21, 157, 187, 211, 252-253
community service, 172-173, 179, 227
detention and, 177
international perspectives, 19, 20, 21
length of, 17, 19, 20, 21, 155, 156, 159, 161-162, 202, 211, 217-218, 219, 221-222, 224, 253
projections of crime and, 64-65
racial factors, 252-254
restitution, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 176, 179, 195, 223
restorative justice model, general, 20, 156, 176, 195, 213, 223
Sex differences,
see Gender factors
Sexual abuse, 31, 101, 187, 204
see also Rape
confidentiality of court proceedings, 212
defined, 317
prostitution, 58
Sexual activity
preventive interventions, 109
prostitution, 58
school-based interventions, 127
Single-parent families, 3, 14, 75-76, 92, 109, 242, 252
Smoking
community-based interventions, 141, 146-147
peer group interventions, 135, 138
preventive interventions, 9, 105, 108, 111
Social factors, general, 5
see also Community-level factors;
Familial factors;
Peers and friends;
Race/ethnicity
early childhood interventions, 116
preventive interventions, 108
risk factors, 14, 15, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 74-83, 103, 108
school-based interventions, 126
self-reports of delinquency, stigma, 31
Socioeconomic status, 14, 103, 200-203, 328
see also Educational attainment;
Employment factors
after-school interventions, 150
bias, 2
black persons, 237-238, 240, 245, 258
community-based interventions, 139, 141-142, 143, 147, 148
economic development, 90-92, 96, 103, 145-146
community-level factors, 90-92, 96, 103
developmental risk factors, 72
homeless persons, 30
homicide, 90
job training, 150-151
juvenile justice system, 158, 201, 237-238, 240, 246, 253
mentoring, 148
policing policies, 246
prenatal interventions, 109
preventive interventions, 109, 117
racial factors, 237-239, 240, 246, 253
school suspension, 85
single-parent families, 76
Standards
adult court, waiver of juveniles to, 208-209
American Correctional Association, 226
community-based interventions, evaluation, 139
detention and incarceration, 12, 226
educational, incarcerated persons, 189
health care, incarcerated persons, 188
racial disparities, state comparisons, 234
State government, ix, 1, 5, 7, 13, 23, 63-64, 225, 226
see also Adult criminal justice system;
Juvenile justice system
antisocial youths, grouping practices, 9
incarcerated persons, treatment of, 11, 156, 228
legislation, 1, 5, 13, 25, 155-156, 157, 161-162, 165, 204-222
prenatal exposure to alcohol/drugs, 9, 105
projections of crime and, 64-65
status offenses, 54-56
State-level factors
racial disparities, 233, 234, 237, 239
Status offenses, 54-56, 57-58, 162, 167, 223
see also Runaways
alcohol use, 54, 55, 59, 74, 160
curfews, 54, 55, 57-58, 145, 163, 179, 194, 318
detention, alternatives to, 176, 180-182
detention for, 177-178
disobedience/incorrigibility, 23, 24, 73, 101, 160, 162, 203
guns, possession of, 54
historical perspectives, 54-56, 160, 161
probation, 184
Stigma of delinquency, 31, 157, 174, 212, 216, 242, 328;
see also Confidentiality
Substance abuse,
see Alcohol and drug abuse
Suburban areas, 259
detained/incarcerated persons, 188, 223
Superpredators, ix, 7, 25, 328-329
Supplemental Homicide Reports, 29, 37, 42, 339
Supreme Court,
see Constitutional law
Surveillance, 176, 182, 194, 196, 199, 200, 223, 258
see also Probation and parole electronic monitoring, 194
Survey of Youth in Residential Placement, 225
T
Teenage parents, 76-77, 102, 105, 242
preventive interventions, 116
Theft, 27, 32, 33, 50, 52, 322
see also Burglary;
Motor vehicle theft;
Robbery
defined, 316
developmental factors, 67
victim-offender mediation, 175
Tobacco use,
see Smoking
U
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), 10, 26-29, 30, 32-34, 63-64, 236-237, 248-249, 254, 321-322, 323, 330, 339
age factors, 10, 27, 28, 321-322, 323, 330
definition of offenses used in, 315-318
Supplemental Homicide Reports, 29, 37, 42, 339
United Kingdom
employment and justice system involvement, 201
number of children in family, 77
socioeconomic segregation, 91
teenage parents, 77
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 211
Urban areas, 90-92, 240-241, 242, 252, 328
adult justice system, waiver to, 214, 215, 216, 250
after care, 198-199
attorney, right to representation by, 166
community-based interventions, 139, 142-144, 146-147
curfews, 163
detention, alternatives to, 179
employment effects of criminal embeddedness, 201
gangs, 83, 93-94, 95, 98, 99, 144-145, 330
Hispanics, 90-91
preventive interventions, 119-120
school-based interventions, 128-129
school suspension/expulsion, 85, 87
V
Vandalism
see also Arson
after-school interventions, 150
defined, 317
school property, 48, 49, 60, 123, 129
victim-offender mediation, 175
Victims of crime
see also Child abuse
age factors, 29, 30, 35, 42, 64, 175-176
arrest reports, 42
assault, 48
community-based interventions, 141, 143, 145
confidentiality of court proceedings, 212
court referrals of offenders, 162
fear of victimization, 1, 99, 106, 133, 143, 145, 155, 158, 162, 316, 328
legislation, general, 205
media portrayals, 99
mediation, victim-offender, 132, 170-171, 175-176;
see also “restitution” infra
National Crime Victimization Survey, 29-30, 64, 236
police policies, 163
racial factors, 64, 175-176, 235, 236, 238, 246, 253
reports by, 28, 29-30, 35, 42, 48, 64, 248-249
restitution, 165, 166, 171, 172, 173, 176, 179, 195, 223
restorative justice model, 20, 156, 176, 195, 213, 223;
see also “mediation...” and “restitution” supra
rights of, state legislation, 205, 213
Video games, 99-100
Violent crimes
see also Assault;
Child abuse;
Homicide;
Rape;
Robbery;
Suicide
adult justice system, waiver to, 207, 214
after-school interventions, 149
age factors, 10, 33-48 (passim), 54, 68, 207, 322, 323, 324, 326-329
arson, 17, 32, 33, 51, 53, 316
community-level, 97-99, 103, 145-146
confidentiality of court proceedings, 212
developmental factors, 67
gender factors, 58, 59, 69, 203, 241-242, 328-329
historical perspectives, 34-48, 62-63, 155, 162, 322, 323, 324, 325, 332-335, 341-342
incarceration for, 186, 213, 219, 220
international perspectives, 17, 20, 21, 45-46
juvenile justice system, 155, 163, 186, 212, 213, 219, 220
mass media portrayal of, 97, 99-100, 330
peer influences, 83
police policies, 163
prevalence, 2, 13, 17, 20, 25, 32, 33, 34-48, 62-63, 155, 235, 322, 323, 324, 326-332 (passim)
probation, 185
racial factors, 34, 230, 235, 241-242, 246, 333
superpredators, ix, 7, 25, 328-329
Uniform Crime Reports, general, 10, 27, 330
victim reports, 35
Virginia, 215-216
W
Waiver of right to attorney, 166
Waiver to adult justice system, 2, 5, 161-162, 165, 168, 206-209, 214-219, 223, 225, 226
age of waiver to, 1, 25, 206-209 (passim), 215-216, 220, 250
drug crimes, 214-215, 216, 220
gender factors, 214
historical perspectives, 214-215, 220222
prosecutorial filings, 5, 155, 207, 208209, 214, 215, 216, 223
racial factors, 216, 219, 220, 221, 222, 231, 232, 233, 250, 254-258
standards, 208-209
urban areas, 214, 215, 216, 250
violent crimes, 207, 209, 214, 216
weapon used in crime, 209, 215, 216
see also Guns
adult justice system, waiver to, 209, 215, 216
definition of possession as crime, 317
Welfare
employment and justice system involvement, 201
preventive interventions, 109, 111, 116
White persons, 228, 232, 235, 251, 254-256
adult courts, waiver to, 250
arrest rates, 34, 56, 232, 235-237, 244, 255, 256, 257
community-based interventions, 147
developmental factors, 67
employment, 202
gangs, 95
homicides, 339-344
incarceration, 222, 232, 255, 256, 257
sentence length, 253
single-parent families, 76, 252
socioeconomic factors, 238-239, 240, 258
suicide rates, 46
victims of crime, 246
Women,
see Gender factors;
Prenatal/perinatal risk factors
World Wide Web,
see Internet
Y
Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance system, 30
