SIMULATED VOYAGES

The professional performance of merchant mariners, marine pilots, and towing vessel operators has been brought to public attention by major marine accidents and the resulting loss of life, oil spills, and damage to marine ecosystems. Intense public and congressional interest in the safety of marine transportation and the qualification of deck officers and pilots was stimulated by the Exxon Valdez grounding and oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989. National interest has been sustained by newsworthy marine accidents along the nation's seacoasts involving all major categories of commercial vessels—cargo ships, tankers, coastwise and inland towing vessels, and passenger vessels. Faulty human performance has figured prominently in most of these accidents.

The U.S. Congress, in the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90 P.L. 101-380), recognized the potential value of simulation in training deck officers and pilots of vessels transporting oil and hazardous substances in U.S. waters. The act directed the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to determine the feasibility and practicality of mandating simulator-based training.

Among the recommendations of a subsequent USCG internal study, Licensing 2000 and Beyond (Anderson et al., 1993), were recommendations that the agency do the following:

• assess computer-based training and testing systems for possible application to mariner training and licensing, and
• conduct research and development for microcomputer desktop training programs.

Marine simulation in various forms is not new to the marine community. Ship maneuvering simulations, manned models, and radar simulations have been used for specialized training in the marine community since the 1960s. The U.S. Maritime Administration (MarAd) and the USCG conducted extensive operational research into human performance during the 1970s and early 1980s using a computer-based ship-bridge simulator constructed for that purpose: the Computer Aided Operations Research Facility (CAORF) located on the grounds of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York. Although this research diminished significantly after the privatization of the CAORF facility in the mid-1980s, the published research, albeit somewhat dated, still serves as a major resource for guiding the use of marine simulation in professional development.

Over the past decade, labor unions and private companies have made substantial investments worldwide in the establishment of computer-based marine simulator facilities. These facilities have been used extensively by some shipping and towing companies and marine pilot associations for specialized training and continuing professional development. Radar simulation is now used extensively for prerequisite radar observer training as part of marine licensing and certification requirements worldwide. The port community, including port authorities and marine pilots, is also familiar with shiphandling simulation through its application to channel design.

Given this background, the USCG requested that the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences conduct a comprehensive assessment of the role of ship-bridge simulation in professional development and marine licensing. In requesting the study, the agency indicated that the report should focus on the use of ship-bridge simulation in training U.S. deck officers and pilots of all categories of ships operating in U.S. coastal and harbor waters, as well as operators of coastwise towing vessels. The agency indicated that other forms of marine simulators—such as manned models, limited-task simulators, and desktop computer-based simulators—should be included for comparative purposes. The use of simulation for inland towing vessels is beyond the scope of this assessment.

The National Research Council convened the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training under the auspices of the Marine Board of the Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. Committee members were selected for their expertise and to ensure a wide range of experience and viewpoints. Consistent with the policy of the National Research Council, the principle guiding constitution of the committee and its work was not to exclude a potential member with expertise vital to the study because of potential biases, but rather to seek a balance among the members of the committee as a whole.

Committee members were selected for their experience in marine pilotage, hydrodynamics, marine and adult education theory and practice, marine and aviation simulation, ship and towing vessel operations and management, shiphandling, marine licensing, and human performance. Academic, industrial, government, and engineering perspectives were reflected in the committee's composition. Brief biographies of committee members are provided in Appendix A.

The committee was assisted by the USCG, MarAd, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, each of which designated liaison representatives.

The committee was asked to conduct a multidisciplinary assessment of the role of ship-bridge simulation in the professional development and licensing of mariners responsible for vessel navigation and piloting. Included in the scope of study were:

• the state of practice in applying ship-bridge simulation technology for pilot, individual, and team training;
• the potential, role, and cost-effectiveness¹ of ship-bridge simulation for initial maritime education, licensing, skills development, skills maintenance, indoctrination to emerging navigation and ship technologies, and determining professional competence;
• the scientific, technical, and professional bases for substituting simulation for practical experience in professional development and in marine licensing;
• requirements for the development and validation of ship-bridge simulators and simulations; and
• improvements and research needed in technology and applications to advance the state of practice of ship-bridge simulation for professional development and marine licensing.

The committee was asked to focus on computer-based, full-mission and limited-task simulators, full-bridge mockups, and the operation of oceangoing and coastwise vessels in coastal waters, harbors, and waterways. Manned models, desktop simulators, virtual reality systems, and other forms of marine simulators are included as alternatives for comparative analysis.

As a part of its background research, the committee commissioned a literature search that initially identified approximately 1,400 possibly relevant documents. From that list, 103 of the most relevant documents were selected and abstracted for the committee (Douwsma, 1993). Of that number, the committee found that nearly half were technical papers and reports of research and experimentation from CAORF (primarily from the 1970s and early 1980s), and half were conference and journal articles.

During the course of the study, the committee also visited a number of marine and one air carrier simulation facilities, including:

• CAORF, Kings Point, New York;
• Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Maryland;
• Seaman's Church Institute, New York;
• STAR Center, Florida;
• Naval Air Warfare Center, Florida;
• Naval Amphibious School, Virginia;
• U.S. Naval Academy, Maryland;
• Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Massachusetts; and
• Delta Airlines Training Facility, Georgia.

In addition, the committee received presentations from and participated in discussions with over 30 experts, one of which was a detailed orientation on the experiences of Panama Canal pilots by Captain S. Orlando Allard (see Allard, 1993). Several members of the committee also attended a three-day simulator-based ship-bridge team training course at Seaman's Church Institute.

This report was prepared for state and federal government decision makers, marine safety and licensing authorities, mariners, the shipping and coastwise towing industries, marine education and training facilities, and public interest organizations.

Moreover, the USCG, on behalf of the United States, has joined a number of other delegations to the International Maritime Organization in urging international requirements and standards for the use of simulation in qualifying mariners. A major revision of the international standards that establish a baseline for knowledge and skill requirements leading to the issuance of marine licenses for seagoing ships is in progress. The report could serve as a resource in addressing and implementing changes in these areas. Chapter 1 reviews the duties and responsibilities of deck officers and marine pilots and introduces issues in the professional development of mariners and the international and national context for mariner training, licensing, and professional development. Chapter 2 describes the classification and types of simulators and summarizes the current state of practice in the use of simulators for training and licensing. This chapter also reviews the use of simulators by the commercial air carrier industry. Chapter 3 discusses the instructional design process and identifies the key elements that comprise an effective training program. Chapter 4 describes the training environment produced by computer-based simulators and by manned models and relates that environment to training objectives discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 5 discusses the use of simulation for evaluation of training performance and for assessment of performance in marine licensing. Chapter 6 examines the practice and appropriateness of using marine simulator-based training as a substitute for seagoing service to meet international standards for marine certification. Chapter 7 discusses the validity, validation, and assessment of simulators and simulation. Chapter 8 presents the committee's conclusions and recommendations. Appendix A contains brief biographical sketches of committee members. Appendices B—G provide essential background and contextual and technical information related to the analyses in the main body of the report.

Allard, S.O. 1993. Pilot Training at the Panama Canal. Unpublished paper for the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training. Marine Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.

Anderson, D.B., T.L. Rice, R.G. Ross, J.D. Pendergraft, C.D. Kakuska, D.F. Meyers, S.J. Szczepaniak, and P.A. Stutman. 1993. Licensing 2000 and Beyond. Washington, D.C.: Office of Marine Safety, Security, and Environmental Protection, U.S. Coast Guard.

Douwsma, D.G. 1993. Background Paper: Shiphandling Simulation Training. Unpublished literature review prepared for the Committee on Ship-Bridge Simulation Training, Marine Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.