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Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest

Contents

• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
  • Status of Salmon Populations
  • The Salmon Problem
  • General Conclusion
  • Environmental Factors
  • Limits on Salmon Production
  • Values
  • Genetics and Conservation
  • Habitat Loss and Rehabilitation
  • Dams
  • Hatcheries
  • Fishing
  • Institutional Change
  • A Scientific Advisory Board to Address Salmon Problems,
  • An Approach to Solving the Salmon Problem
  • The Future

• 1: Introduction
  • The Salmon Problem
  • Components of the System
    • The Region
    • The Salmon
    • Evolutionary, Genetic, Ecological, and Spatial Units of Concern
    • The People
  • Components of the Problem
    • Limits to Biological Production
    • Institutions
    • Knowledge
  • Approaches
    • Goals
    • Framework

• 2: Salmon Geography and Ecology
  • Introduction
  • Salmon Life History and Distribution
    • Anadromy
    • Homing
    • Semelparity
    • Generalized Life Cycle
    • Individual Species Distributions
  • Pacific Northwest Salmon Areas
    • River Basins
    • Ocean
  • Salmon Ecology in River Basins
    • Species Interactions
    • Juvenile Adaptability
    • Spawners' Effects on Streams
    • Cautions
  • Salmon Ecology in the Ocean
    • Interdecadal Variation in Ocean Climate
    • Density-Dependent Effects
    • Larger Spatial and Temporal Scales

• 3: Human History and Influences
  • Historical Setting
  • Cultures and Treaties
  • Decline of the Beaver
  • Fishing Pressures
  • Propagating Fish
  • Grazing Rangelands
  • Harvesting the Old Growth
  • Damming the Northwest
  • Watering the Land
  • Altering Wetlands and Estuaries
  • Summary and Conclusions

• 4: Status of Salmon
  • Interpreting Historical Records
  • The Stock Concept
  • Risk Assessment
  • Fraser River Basin
  • Puget Sound
  • Columbia River Basin
    • Historical Trends
    • Snake River
    • Middle and Upper Columbia River
    • Lower Columbia River
    Coastal Washington, Oregon, and California
  • Willapa Bay—A Case Study

• 5: Values and Institutions
  • Introduction
  • Individual Preferences and Public Values
  • How Salmon Are Valued
    • Direct Regional Economic Value
    • Indirect and Option Values
    • Resource Values and Public Choice
    • Value Over Time and Generations
  • Institutions and Values
  • "Lords of Yesterday"
    • Technological Optimism
    • Political Pluralism
  • "Princes of Today"?
    • Public Trust and American Indian Rights
    • Resource Planning
    Fisheries Management Institutions
    • Biodiversity and Endangered Species
    • Compensation, Liability and the Law
  • Values and Analysis

• 6: Genetics and Conservation
  • Structure of Genetic Variation
  • Local Reproductive Units
  • Local Adaptation
  • Metapopulation Structure
  • Level of Genetic Organization to be Conserved
  • Effects of Human Activities on Genetic Diversity
  • Conclusions

• 7: Habitat Loss
  • Dimensions of the Problem
  • Natural Versus Anthropogenic Disturbances and Watershed Productivity
  • Sedimentation
  • Streambank Erosion
  • Streambank Armoring and Channelization
  • Instream Mining
  • Diking, Draining, and Filling
  • Flood Control
  • Altered Streamflow
  • Altered Groundwater
  • Altered Riparian Vegetation
  • Altered Thermal Regime
  • Decreased Large Woody Debris
  • Migration Barriers
  • Water Pollution
  • Loss of Refuges
  • Summary

• 8: Habitat Management and Rehabilitation
  • Watershed Influences
  • Habitat-Management Options
    • Protection
    • Restoration
    • Rehabilitation
    • Substitution
  • Watershed Analysis
  • Opportunities and Challenges
  • Property Rights and Habitat Protection on Private Lands
  • Burden of Proof
  • Habitat Management and Fisheries Management

• 9: Dams and Mitigation of Their Effects
  • Introduction
  • Effects of Dams on Salmon
    • Dam-Related Mortality
    • Time of Travel
    • Unscreened Diversion Dams
    • Estuarine Dynamics
  • Mitigation of Dams' Effects on Salmon
    • Fish-Passage Facilities
    • Predator Control
    • Transportation
    • Spill
    • Flow Augmentation
    • Reservoir Drawdown
    • Dam Removal
    • Selection of Mitigation Alternatives

• 10: Fishing
  • Salmon Fisheries in the Pacific Northwest
    • Early History
    • The 1990s
    • Fishery-Management Institutions
    • Fishery-Management Data
    International Influences
    • High-Seas Fishing
    • Canadian and U.S. Fishery Interactions
  • Conclusion

• 11: Salmon-Fishery Management Concepts
  • Stock and Recruitment
  • Fishery Management in the Future
    • The Status Quo
    • The No-Fishing Option
    • The Limited-Entry Option
    • The Terminal-Fishery Option
    • Developing a New Management Paradigm
  • Conclusions

• 12: Hatcheries
  • Problems Associated with Hatchery Practices
    • Demographic Risks
    • Genetic and Evolutionary Risks
    • Behavior
    • Fish Health
    • Physiology
    • Ecological Problems
  • Roles of Hatcheries in the Future of Salmon
    • Hatcheries in the Rehabilitation Option
    • Temporary Hatcheries
    • Catch-Augmentation Hatchery
  • Conclusions
  • Recommendations

• 13: Institutional Analysis
  • Introduction
  • Bioregional Governance
    • Cooperative Management
  • Adaptive Management
  • A Proposal for Constructive Action
    • Columbia River System
    • Coastal Streams and Estuaries

• 14: A Scientific Advisory Board to Address the Salmon Problem
  • Gaps in Knowledge
  • Science, River Flows, and Uncertainty
  • A Scientific Advisory Board
    • Why a Scientific Advisory Board Is Needed
    • Requirements for an Effective Scientific Advisory Board

• 15 Conclusions and Recommendations: Toward a Sustainable Future for Salmon
  • General Conclusion
  • Environmental Changes
    • Oceanic Conditions
    • Regional Variation
  • Values and Institutions
  • Genetics and Conservation
    • Genetic Resources
    • Regional Population Structure
    Habitat Loss and Rehabilitation
  • Dams
  • Fishing and Fishery Management
    • Too Few Spawners
    • Protection of Genetic Diversity
    • Strong and Depleted Populations
  • Hatcheries
    • Role of Hatcheries
    • Regional Variation in Use of Hatcheries
  • Information Needs
    • Funding Adequacy
    • Adaptive Management
  • Institutions
  • An Approach to Solving the Salmon Problem
  • The Future

• References
• Appendixes
  • A: Biographical Information on Committee Members and Staff
  • B: Meeting Dates and Locations
  • C: Acknowledgments
  • D: Major Landforms and Their Rivers
  • E: International Treaty Considerations in Operation of the Columbia River System
  • F: Reservoir-System Operation

• Index

Facing page: Image of the Haida Dog Salmon (Saagi) by Haida artist Bill Reid. Courtesy of Bill Reid and the Buschlen Mowatt Gallery, 111-1445 W. Georgia St., Vancouver, BC, Canada V6G 2T3.

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