NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Cooperative Agreement X 82880601-0, between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm.A.Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V.Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M.Alberts and Dr. Wm.A.Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
COMMITTEE ON CARBON MONOXIDE EPISODES IN METEOROLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL PROBLEM AREAS
Members
ARMISTEAD G.RUSSELL (Chair),
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
ROGER ATKINSON,
University of California, Riverside
SUE ANN BOWLING,
University of Alaska (Retired), Fairbanks
STEVEN D.COLOME,
University of California, Los Angeles
NAIHUA DUAN,
University of California, Los Angeles
GERALD GALLAGHER,
J Gallagher and Associates, Inc., Englewood, Colorado
RANDALL L.GUENSLER,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
SUSAN L.HANDY,
University of Texas, Austin
SIMONE HOCHGREB,
Exponent, Natick, Massachusetts
SANDRA N.MOHR, Consultant,
Gillette, New Jersey
ROGER A.PIELKE SR.,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins
KARL J.SPRINGER,
Southwest Research Institute (Retired), San Antonio, Texas
ROGER WAYSON,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
Project Staff
K.JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer
RAYMOND WASSEL, Senior Program Director
NANCY HUMPHREY, Senior Staff Officer
CHAD TOLMAN, Staff Officer
LAURIE GELLER, Staff Officer
AMANDA STAUDT, Postdoctoral Research Associate
NORMAN GROSSBLATT, Editor
KELLY CLARK, Editorial Assistant
RAMYA CHARI, Project Assistant
Sponsor
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Members
GORDON ORIANS (Chair),
University of Washington, Seattle
JOHN DOULL (Vice Chair),
University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City
DAVID ALLEN,
University of Texas, Austin
INGRID C.BURKE,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins
THOMAS BURKE,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
WILLIAM L.CHAMEIDES,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
CHRISTOPHER B.FIELD,
Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, California
J.PAUL GILMAN,
Celera Genomics, Rockville, Maryland
DANIEL S.GREENBAUM,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts
BRUCE D.HAMMOCK,
University of California, Davis
ROGENE HENDERSON,
Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico
CAROL HENRY,
American Chemistry Council, Arlington, Virginia
ROBERT HUGGETT,
Michigan State University, East Lansing
JAMES H.JOHNSON,
Howard University, Washington, D.C.
JAMES F.KITCHELL,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
DANIEL KREWSKI,
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario
JAMES A.MACMAHON,
Utah State University, Logan
WILLEM F.PASSCHIER,
Health Council of The Netherlands, The Hague
ANN POWERS,
Pace University School of Law, White Plains, New York
LOUISE M.RYAN,
Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
KIRK SMITH,
University of California, Berkeley
LISA SPEER,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York
Senior Staff
JAMES J.REISA, Director
DAVID J.POLICANSKY, Associate Director and Senior Program Director for Applied Ecology
RAYMOND A.WASSEL, Senior Program Director for Environmental Sciences and Engineering
KULBIR BAKSHI, Program Director for the Committee on Toxicology
ROBERTA M.WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis
K.JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer
SUSAN N.J.MARTEL, Senior Staff Officer
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Staff Officer
RUTH E.CROSSGROVE, Managing Editor
BOARD ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE
Members
ERIC J.BARRON (Chair),
Pennsylvania State University, University Park
SUSAN K.AVERY,
University of Colorado, Boulder
RAYMOND J.BAN,
The Weather Channel, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia
HOWARD B.BLUESTEIN,
University of Oklahoma, Norman
STEVEN F.CLIFFORD,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, Colorado
GEORGE L.FREDERICK,
Vaisala Meteorological Systems, Inc., Boulder, Colorado
JUDITH L.LEAN,
Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC
MARGARET A.LEMONE,
National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
MARIO J.MOLINA,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
ROGER A.PIELKE, JR.,
University of Colorado, Boulder
MICHAEL J.PRATHER,
University of California, Irvine
WILLIAM J.RANDEL,
National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
ROBERT T.RYAN,
WRC-TV, Washington, DC
THOMAS F.TASCIONE,
Sterling Software, Inc., Bellevue, Nebraska
ROBERT A.WELLER,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
ERIC F.WOOD,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2000 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Members
JOHN M.SAMUELS (Chair),
Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, Virginia
THOMAS R.WARNE (Vice Chair),
Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City
ROBERT E.SKINNER, JR. (Executive Director),
National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
WILLIAM D.ANKNER,
Rhode Island Dept. of Transportation, Providence
THOMAS F.BARRY, JR.,
Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee
JACK E.BUFFINGTON,
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
SARAH C.CAMPBELL,
TransManagement, Inc., Washington, D.C.
E.DEAN CARLSON,
Kansas Department of Transportation, Topeka
JOANNE CASEY,
Intermodal Association of North America, Greenbelt, Maryland
JAMES C.CODELL III,
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Frankfort
JOHN L.CRAIG,
Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln
ROBERT A.FROSCH,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
GORMAN GILBERT,
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles
LESTER A.HOEL,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville
H.THOMAS KORNEGAY,
Port of Houston Authority, Houston, Texas
BRADLEY L.MALLORY,
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg
MICHAEL D.MEYER,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
JEFF P.MORALES,
California Department of Transportation, Sacramento
JEFFREY R.MORELAND,
Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway, Fort Worth, Texas
JOHN P.POORMAN,
Capital District Transportation Committee, Albany, New York
CATHERINE L.ROSS,
Georgia Regional Transportation Agency, Atlanta
WAYNE SHACKELFORD,
Gresham Smith & Partners, Alpharetta, Georgia
PAUL P.SKOUTELAS,
Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
MICHAEL S.TOWNES,
Transportation District Commission of Hampton Roads, Hampton, Virginia
MARTIN WACHS,
University of California, Berkeley
MICHAEL W.WICKHAM,
Roadway Express, Inc., Akron, Ohio
JAMES A.WILDING,
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority, Washington, D.C.
M.GORDON WOLMAN,
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Research-Management and Peer-Review Practices (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000) Copper in Drinking Water (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (3 reports, 1998–2001)
Ozone-Forming Potential of Reformulated Gasoline (1999)
Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999)
Brucellosis in the Greater Yellowstone Area (1998)
The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (5 reports, 1989–1995)
Review of EPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 reports, 1994–1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Assessment of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies Program, Volumes I–IV (1991–1993)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academy Press
(800) 624–6242 or (202) 334–3313
Acknowledgment of Review Participants
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
John C.Bailar III, University of Chicago
Lenora Bohren, Colorado State University
Gregory J.Dana, Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers
Robert Dulla, Sierra Research, Inc.
Robert Gibbons, University of Illinois, Chicago
Judith A.Graham, American Chemistry Council
Arthur Hussey, Northern Alaska Environmental Center
Robert F.Klausmeier, de la Torre Klausmeier Consulting, Inc.
Paul W.Ludden, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Jeffery S.Tilley, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its re-
lease. The review of this report was overseen by F.Sherwood Rowland, University of California, Irvine. Appointed by the NRC, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Preface
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic air pollutant produced largely from vehicle emissions. Breathing CO at high concentrations leads to reduced oxygen transport by hemoglobin, which has health effects that include impaired reaction timing, headaches, lightheadedness, nausea, vomiting, weakness, clouding of consciousness, coma, and, at high enough concentrations and long enough exposure, death. In recognition of those health effects, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as directed by the Clean Air Act, established the health-based National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for CO in 1971.
Most areas that were previously designated as “nonattainment” areas have come into compliance with the NAAQS for CO, but some locations still have difficulty in attaining the CO standards. Those locations tend to have topographical or meteorological characteristics that exacerbate pollution. In view of the challenges posed for some areas to attain compliance with the NAAQS for CO, congress asked the National Research Council to investigate the problem of CO in areas with meteorological and topographical problems. This interim report deals specifically with Fairbanks, Alaska. Fairbanks was chosen as a case study because its meteorological and topographical characteristics make it susceptible to severe winter inversions that trap CO and other pollutants at ground level.
In preparing this report, the committee gathered information and conducted analyses of existing data but did not make any new measurements. The committee met in Fairbanks in August 2001 and again in December 2001,
when they were able to observe first-hand the meteorological conditions and emissions patterns that could cause a CO episode. During their second trip to Fairbanks, a public hearing was held to assist the committee in issue identification. Members of the community were invited to share their perspectives and concerns with the committee at that time. The committee would like to acknowledge those who took the time to participate in that hearing.
Many people assisted the committee by providing information related to issues addressed in this report. I gratefully acknowledge William Boycott, Williams Alaska Petroleum Inc.; John Cabaniss, Association of International Automobile Manufacturers; Gregory Dana, Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers; Robert Dulla, Sierra Research; Laurence Elmore, EPA; Mary Ellen Gordian, University of Alaska, Anchorage; Gerald Guay, Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation; Nadine Hargesheimer, Fairbanks North Star Borough; Gregory Henderson, Tesoro Alaska; Ronald King, Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation; Max Lyon, Fairbanks North Star Borough; John Middaugh, Alaska Department of Health and Public Services; Steven Morris, municipality of Anchorage; William Neff, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Paul Prusak, Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities; Paul Rossow, Fairbanks North Star Borough; Leonard Verrelli, state of Alaska; and Jimmie Williams, Ceramics, Environmental Technologies Development, Corning, Inc.; Aaron Owens, DuPont Central Research and Development, Wilmington, Delaware; and Susan Alber, University of California, Los Angeles.
I am also grateful for the assistance of the National Research Council staff in the preparation of this report. The committee was ably assisted by K.John Holmes in his role as project director. The committee also acknowledges Raymond A.Wassel, senior program director for environmental sciences and engineering in the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (BEST). We thank the other staff members who contributed to this report, including Warren Muir, executive director of the Division on Earth and Life Studies; James J.Reisa, director of BEST; Nancy Humphrey, senior staff officer with the Transportation Research Board; Chad Tolman, staff officer with BEST; Amanda Staudt, post-doctoral research associate with BEST; Norman Grossblatt, editor; Mirsada Karalic-Loncarevic, information specialist with BEST; and Ramya Chari, Jennifer Saunders, and Emily Smail, project assistants with BEST.