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Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004 (2005)

Chapter: 8 Neurologic Disorders

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Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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8
Neurologic Disorders

Neurologic disorders include a wide variety of medical conditions. The nervous system can be divided anatomically and functionally into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Distinguishing between CNS and PNS dysfunction is a useful starting point for understanding and evaluating neurologic disorders.

The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord. CNS disorders can be broadly divided into neurobehavioral disorders and movement disorders. Neurobehavioral disorders can involve cognitive syndromes, including memory problems, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease; and neuropsychiatric problems, including neurasthenia (a collection of such symptoms as difficulty in concentrating, headache, insomnia, and fatigue), post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorder, depression, and suicide. Those disorders result from problems in the cerebral cortex or limbic system. Movement disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), involve weakness, tremors, involuntary movements, incoordination, or gait abnormalities. Those disorders result from problems in the basal ganglia, cerebellum, or spinal cord.

The PNS includes the spinal nerve roots that exit the spinal cord through the vertebral column, traverse the brachial and lumbar plexuses, and end in the peripheral nerves that connect with muscles, skin, and internal organs. PNS disorders are classified as various types of peripheral neuropathy, which can involve sensory changes, motor weakness, or autonomic instability. Those disorders result from problems in somatic or autonomic nerves or both.

Neurologic disorders also can be classified on the basis of anatomic distribution as either global or focal; on the basis of timing relative to exposure as early

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

or delayed onset; or on the basis of duration as transient or persistent. For example, global CNS dysfunction can lead to a general abnormality, such as an altered level of consciousness, whereas focal CNS dysfunction might lead to an isolated abnormality, such as difficulty with language function (aphasia). Early onset disorders are seen within days or weeks or exposure; delayed onset may occur after months or years. Transient disorders are short-lived; persistent disorders produce lasting deficits. Timing is important in assessing the effects of chemical exposure on neurological function and must be considered in the design and critique of epidemiologic studies. In the original Veterans and Agent Orange (VAO) report (IOM, 1994), attention was deliberately focused on persistent neurobehavioral disorders. Later reports—Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1996 (hereafter, Update 1996 [IOM, 1996]), Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1998 (hereafter, Update 1998 [IOM, 1999]), Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2000 (hereafter, Update 2000 [IOM, 2001]) and Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2002 (hereafter, Update 2002 [IOM, 2003])—and this report review data pertinent to all neurologic disorders.

Case identification in neurologic disorders is often difficult, because there are few disorders for which there are specific diagnostic tests. Many disorders involve cellular or molecular biochemical effects, so even the most advanced imaging techniques can miss an abnormality. Because the nervous system is not readily accessible for biopsy, pathologic confirmation usually is not feasible. Neurologic disorders are by their nature largely subjective; so there often is no objective evidence with which to confirm diagnosis.

Many studies have addressed the possible contribution of herbicides and pesticides to neurologic disorders. Studies relevant to this report investigated exposures from one of three general settings: in the workplace, from the environment, or during military service in Vietnam.

This chapter reviews the association between exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD); 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid (picloram); and cacodylic acid (dimethylarsenic acid or DMA) and neurobehavioral disorders, movement disorders, and peripheral neuropathy. The scientific evidence for biologic plausibility also is reviewed briefly. More complete discussions of the categories of association and this committee’s approach to categorizing health outcomes are presented in Chapters 1 and 2. A more thorough discussion of biologic plausibility is found in Chapter 3. For studies new to this update that report only a single neurological health outcome and that are not revisiting a previously studied population, their design information is summarized with their results; the design information for all other new studies can be found in Chapter 4.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

NEUROBEHAVIORAL DISORDERS (COGNITIVE OR NEUROPSYCHIATRIC)

Summary of VAO, Update 1996, Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002

On the basis of the data available at the time, it was concluded in VAO, Update 1996, Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002 that there was inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and neurobehavioral disorders. Much of the data that informed that conclusion came from the Air Force Health Study (AFHS, 1984, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1995, 2000), an ongoing, longitudinal study of a cohort of Air Force veterans (Ranch Hands) whose duties involved spraying pesticides during their service in Vietnam. VAO and the Updates offer more complete discussions of the AFHS protocols and results; a brief summary is included here. The AFHS study design and methods of exposure assessment, respectively, are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 of this report.

The studies reviewed in VAO (IOM, 1994) revealed no association between serum TCDD concentration and reported sleep disturbance or variables from the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). In contrast, serum TCDD was significantly associated with responses on some scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI).

In Update 2000 (IOM, 2001), results were reviewed from AFHS (2000). Some self-reported symptoms on a checklist (anxiety, hostility, obsessive–compulsive behavior, paranoid ideation, somatization, global severity index, other neuroses) were significantly more frequent in Ranch Hands, but associations for some of those variables were not significant after adjustment for covariates. In addition, a repeat psychological assessment was performed with SCL-90-R, and reported psychological disorders were verified through medical record review and combined with those obtained on previous examinations. Of the five categories of psychological diagnosis—psychosis, alcohol dependence, drug dependence, anxiety, and other neurosis—a dose–response pattern was found for serum TCDD concentration and “other neuroses” in the enlisted groundcrew. However, when the relationship between the serum TCDD and the psychological diagnoses was examined for all Ranch Hands, there were no significant results.

Three new studies were reviewed in Update 2002 (IOM, 2003). Neuropsychological tests of cognitive functioning indicated significant group differences on some scales. However, the findings did not support a dose–response relationship with serum TCDD; poorer performance was seen in groups with background or low exposure, and the lower performance on only one memory test for one subgroup of subjects suggested a chance finding.

Uncertainty in interpreting results from the AFHS relates to variations in diagnostic approach, variable findings within subgroups on similar tests, and the lack of dose–response relationships with objective measures of exposure. The

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

committee has summarized data from many other studies; similar limitations have affected interpretation of those results, as described in Update 1998. Therefore, that committee maintained the conclusion that there has been inadequate or insufficient evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric).

Update of the Scientific Literature

Since Update 2002 (IOM, 2003), five reports have investigated associations between neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric) and possible exposure to the compounds of interest: an update of the AFHS (Barrett et al., 2003), a cross-sectional study of a cohort of Korean veterans who served in Vietnam (Kim et al., 2003), an update of an occupational cohort from the Czech Republic (Pelclova et al., 2002), a cohort study from the Bordeaux region of France (Baldi et al., 2003a), and a semi-ecological study from a community adjacent to a wood treatment plant (Dahlgren et al., 2003).

Psychological functioning was compared in Ranch Hand veterans and other Vietnam veterans (Barrett et al., 2003). The number of study participants changed depending on the year of examination, with a range of 921–953 Ranch Hands (roughly 75% participation rate) and 1,037–1,202 comparison subjects. Exposure was determined by serum dioxin measured in 1987 or 1992 and back-extrapolated to the final year of each subject’s tour of duty, assuming a constant half-life for dioxin of 8.7 years. Ranch Hands were placed in background-, low-, and high-exposure groups (with the mean serum concentration marking the cutoff between low and high). The characteristics of the study groups indicated that those with high exposure were more likely to be younger enlisted personnel; those with background or low exposure were older officers. Two standard psychological test instruments were administered: the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in 1982 and 1985, and MCMI in 1987 and 1992. MMPI results were inconsistent over time and showed no clearly significant associations with exposure. There was no association between dioxin concentration and PTSD symptoms as measured on the MMPI. MCMI results were essentially identical for all groups for both years, with a single exception—1992 results showed significantly elevated personality scores in the background-exposure group. Although this was a well-designed study, capitalizing on the opportunity to evaluate potential associations between objective measures of exposure and psychological functioning using validated test instruments, the conclusions are limited by the possibility of misclassification of exposure, selection bias, and uncontrolled confounding (by subjects’ educational achievement). The authors quite reasonably conclude that there were “few consistent differences in psychological functioning” between groups based on serum dioxin concentrations.

Pelclova et al. (2002) published an updated description of neuropsychological test results from 12 members of a group of workers at a 2,4,5-T production

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

facility in the Czech Republic. Although a prior report (Pazderova-Vejlupka et al., 1981) indicated significant correlations between TCDD concentrations and cognitive-test results (see Update 2002), test scores were higher at the follow-up examination and the correlations were no longer significant when the cognitive tests were repeated in 2001 (Peclova et al., 2002). Previous publications from that group were reviewed in VAO and Update 2002, which identified significant methodologic problems in selection bias and lack of control for confounding by educational achievement, tobacco use, or alcohol use. An essential limitation is the lack of a comparison group, which precludes any causal inference.

A cross-sectional study of Korean veterans who served in Vietnam described a variety of health outcomes (Kim et al., 2003). The subjects were recruited from a roster of the Korean Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs, with participation rates for Vietnam veterans of 27.6% and for a comparison group of non-Vietnam-veteran pensioners of 5.7%. The demographic characteristics of the participating Vietnam veterans were significantly different both from the source population and from the comparison group. Participants were older and had served in Vietnam longer than had non-participants. Among the participants, Vietnam veterans were younger, less likely to be married, less likely to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol, and less likely to have advanced education than were non-Vietnam-veteran comparison subjects. Participants were assigned to one of four Agent Orange exposure categories, based on a combination of self-report of personal exposure and duty within specific geographic–military regions. Further details on the exposure assessment can be found in Chapter 5 of this report.

Health outcomes were assessed by a group of four family practitioners, blinded to subjects’ exposure status, using a “standardized comprehensive clinical investigation.” Associations between exposure and health outcome were estimated using χ-square tests or multiple linear regression to control for potential confounders. There was a significantly higher prevalence of PTSD and mood disorder in Vietnam veterans than in the non-Vietnam-veteran comparison group; although the association was not significant after controlling for multiple potential confounders, and it did not differ by exposure in Vietnam veterans. The study is limited because of the possibility of selection bias. There is also a chance of residual confounding because of the demographic differences between groups, although the authors appropriately included potential confounders in their statistical models. The study does not provide evidence for a significant association between exposure to the compounds of interest and neurobehavioral disorders.

The Bordeaux study (Baldi et al., 2003a) focused on a cohort of 2,792 persons over age 65, enrolled in 1987 for the purposes of studying normal and pathological cerebral aging and loss of independence in the elderly. By the time of the 5-, 8-, and 10-year follow-ups, the cohort had decreased to 1,507, 1,118, and 1,026 persons, respectively. Exposures were categorized into quartiles by the likelihood of occupational use of chemical pesticides on the basis of self-reports,

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

which introduce the possibility of recall bias. The high drop-out rate raises concerns of selection bias. The authors also could not identify exposure to specific compounds, although fungicides were implicated as the most heavily used compounds in grape cultivation in Bordeaux. It is unlikely that those exposures were comparable to herbicide exposures in Vietnam, so the study offers no evidence that would implicate the compounds of interest.

The final study used a semi-ecological design to assess the possibility that self-reported symptoms suggesting neurobehavioral disorders in a group of people from eastern Mississippi were related to residence near a creosote treatment plant (Dahlgren et al., 2003). The study suffers from design weaknesses, including selection and ascertainment bias, lack of objective exposure data, and lack of physician-confirmed diagnoses; its design is not suited to address the presence of an association.

Synthesis

There is no consistent evidence for any association between neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric) and Agent Orange exposure. Difficulties in case identification and diagnosis, misclassification of exposures because of a lack of contemporaneous measures, subject ascertainment and selection bias, and uncontrolled confounding from many comorbid conditions are common weaknesses in the studies reviewed. The variability of the test results over time, the weak and inconsistent associations, and a lack of consistent dose–response relationships, also prevent those studies from supporting an association between the exposures of interest and neurobehavioral disorders.

Conclusion

Strength of Evidence from Epidemiologic Studies

On the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiological evidence reviewed here and in previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there is still inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric).

Biologic Plausibility

No new animal studies are relevant to the compounds of interest and neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric). A summary of biologic plausibility is presented at the end of this chapter.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×
Increased Risk of Disease Among Vietnam Veterans

The lack of data on the association between exposure to the chemicals of interest and neurobehavioral disorders, including cognitive and neuropsychiatric, coupled with the lack of exposure information on Vietnam veterans, precludes quantification of any possible increase in their risk.

MOVEMENT DISORDERS

This section summarizes the data from previous VAO reports and updates the scientific literature on movement disorders, including PD and ALS.

Parkinson’s Disease and Parkinsonism

PD is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. Its primary clinical manifestations are bradykinesia, resting tremor, cogwheel rigidity, and gait instability. These signs were first described in 1817 as a single entity by James Parkinson, who believed that severe fright from a traumatic experience was a probable cause. Despite nearly two centuries of investigation, the true causes of the disease remain enigmatic, and the diagnosis still relies on a characteristic constellation of signs from clinical neurologic examination. Unfortunately, the signs are not pathognomonic; they are seen in other disorders, including parkinsonism resulting from syndromes that are virtually indistinguishable from PD. Ultimately, a diagnosis of PD can be confirmed with postmortem pathologic examination of brain tissue for the characteristic loss of neurons from the substantia nigra and telltale Lewy body intracellular inclusions. Pathology findings in other causes of parkinsonism show different patterns of brain injury.

Estimates of population-based incidence for PD range from 2 to 22 per 100,000 person-years, and estimates of prevalence range from 18 to 182 per 100,000 person-years (both age adjusted to the 1970 US census). That makes PD the second most common neurodegenerative disease (after Alzheimer’s disease). Age is the only definite risk factor for PD; peak incidence and prevalence are consistently found in the seventh or eighth decades of life.

Heredity has long been suspected as a primary risk factor for PD, and identification of the evidence for genetic transmission has accumulated over the past decade, marked by the determination of specific mutations in two genes, Parkin and α-synuclein. However, it has become clear that simple Mendelian transmission can account only for some rare forms of familial and young-onset PD.

Summary of VAO, Update 1996, Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002

Based on growing concerns about a possible link between PD and pesticide exposures, the original committee suggested that attention be paid to the pattern

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

of new cases in exposed and non-exposed Vietnam veterans, especially as they entered the decades during which PD becomes more prevalent. That recommendation was echoed in each subsequent Update. It was noted that many published studies have used similar methodology, with diagnostic criteria based either on clinical signs of PD or on International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Edition (ICD-9) diagnostic coding from death certificates or hospital admission records. Usually, pesticide exposure was considered relevant only when it occurred before disease onset, although the specific timing relative to onset usually was not clear.

The Update 1996 and Update 1998 committees considered the detection of early-onset cases to be vital to test the hypothesis that cases are related to a toxic exposure.

The Update 2000 committee noted that most studies have grouped cases of all ages; those that have separated early-onset cases have yielded inconsistent results (Butterfield et al., 1993; Stern et al., 1991). Estimates of relative risk have been quite inconsistent: Five studies demonstrate positive associations (Butterfield et al., 1993; Gorell et al., 1998; Liou et al., 1997; Seidler et al., 1996; Semchuk et al., 1992), two demonstrate negative associations (Kuopio, 1999; Stern et al., 1991), and one shows no association (Taylor et al., 1999). A meta-analysis indicated significant heterogeneity among the published work (Priyadarshi et al., 2000). Evidence for a dose–response relationship was limited: only one study (Gorell et al., 1998) demonstrated an increased incidence of PD with increasing dose as measured by duration of exposure.

Update 2002 reviewed reports of two cohort studies (Engel et al., 2001; Petrovich et al., 2002), the results of which were similar to those of the many other studies reviewed for earlier volumes. Lengthy agricultural occupation was associated with parkinsonism in many reports; however, the results did not show consistent dose–response trends, and no association was identified for any individual compound or class of pesticides.

None of the studies has described specific exposures to the compounds of interest. Table 8-1 summarizes the relevant studies.

Update of the Scientific Literature

Since Update 2002 (IOM, 2002), three reports have examined the possible association between PD and pesticide exposures: one (Baldi et al., 2003a) was described above (see the section on neurobehavioral disorders); the second is a nested case–control study related to the Bordeaux cohort (Baldi et al., 2003b); the third comes from a Belgian case–control study that examined associations with a variety of environmental factors, including exposure to pesticides (Pals et al., 2003).

In the Bordeaux cohort study (Baldi et al., 2003a), incident (new) cases at the 8- and 10-year follow-up were identified by self-report in response to the question, “Do you have Parkinson’s disease?” Prevalent (existing) cases of PD were excluded at the time of enrollment and after 5 years of follow-up; for those cases,

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

TABLE 8-1 Epidemiologic Studies of Pesticide Exposure and Parkinson’s Diseasea

Reference and Country

Study Group

Comparison Group

Exposure Assessment

Significant Association with Pesticides

OR (95 % CI)

Neurologic Dysfunction

Baldi et al., 2003a; France

585 men (age > 70 years)

 

Questionnaire—detailed occupational histories

+

Occupational pesticides (mostly fungicides) 5.6 (1.5–21.6)

Self-report at 8 and 10 year follow-ups

Baldi et al., 2003b; France

84 (age > 70 years)

252 (age > 70 years)

Interview

–Occupational history coded by experts

–Residential history

+

Occupational pesticides (mostly fungicides) 2.2 (1.1–3.4)

UK PD Society Brain Bank clinical criteria

Pals et al., 2003

423

205

Questionnaire–occupational history not interpreted with respect to pesticide use

 

 

Neurologic exam

Petrovitch et al., 2002; US

2,623

5,363

Total years plantation work and years of pesticide exposure

+

Plantation work >20 years 1.9 (1.0–3.5)

Medical records and neurologic exam

Engel et al., 2001; US

238

72

Self-administered questionnaire for occupational exposure

+

Pesticides 0.8 (0.5–1.2)

Herbicide 0.9 (0.6–1.3)

Highest tertile pesticide 2.0 (1.0–4.2)

Neurologic exam by trained nurse

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

Ritz and Yu, 2000; US

7,516 (PD cause of death 1984–1994)

498,461 (ischemic heart disease cause of death 1984–1994)

Counties ranked by pesticide use from pesticide registry and agricultural census data

+

Prevalence OR: Moderate pesticide 1.36 (1.3–1.5) High insecticide 1.45 (1.3–1.6)

ICD-9 332

Tuchsen and Jensen, 2000; Denmark

134

128,935 expected cases 101.5

Occupations in farming, horticulture, and landscape expected to have exposure to pesticides

+

Age-standardized hospitalization ratio for all men in agriculture and horticulture 134 (109–162)

First-time hospitalization for PD

Fall et al., 1999; Swedenb

113

263

Questionnaire—any job handling pesticides

 

Pesticides 2.8 (0.9–8.7)

Neurologic exam

Kuopio et al., 1999; Finland

123 (onset of PD before 1984)

279

Interview—pesticides or herbicides regularly or occasionally used

Regular use of herbicides 0.7 (0.3–1.3)

Neurologic exam

Taylor et al., 1999; US

140

147

Interview—exposure recorded as total days for lifetime

Pesticide 1.02 (0.9–1.2)

Herbicide 1.06 (0.7–1.7)

Neurologic exam

Chan et al., 1998; Hong Kongb

215

313

Interview—exposure to pesticides during farming (years)

+

Pesticides in women 6.8 (1.9–24.7)

Pesticides in men 0.7 (0.3–1.8)

Neurologic exam

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

Reference and Country

Study Group

Comparison Group

Exposure Assessment

Significant Association with Pesticides

OR (95 % CI)

Neurologic Dysfunction

Gorrell et al., 1998; USb

144 (age > 50 years)

464

Interview—herbicide and insecticide use while working on a farm or gardening

+

Occupational herbicides 4.1 (1.4–12.2)

Occupational insecticides 3.6 (1.8–7.2)

Standard criteria of PD by history

Hubble et al., 1998; US

3 PD with dementia

51 PD without dementia

Interviews—pesticide exposure >20 days in any year and presence of allele for poor drug metabolism

+

Pesticide exposure and genetic trait 3.17 (1.1–9.1)

Neurologic exam

McCann et al., 1998; Australiab

224

310

Questionnaire—daily or weekly exposure to industrial herbicides and pesticides >6 months

 

Herbicides or pesticides 1.2 (0.8–1.5)

Neurologic exam

Menegon et al., 1998; Australia

96

95

Interview—pesticide exposure more than once weekly for >6 months before onset of PD

+

Pesticide 2.3 (1.2–4.4)

Standard criteria of PD by history

Smargiassi et al., 1998; Italyb

86

86

Interview—occupational exposure for at least 10 consecutive years

 

Pesticides or herbicides 1.15 (0.6–2.4)

Standard criteria of PD by history

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

Liou et al., 1997; Taiwanb,c

120

240

Interview—occupational exposures to herbicides or pesticides

+

Herbicides or pesticides, no paraquat 2.2 (0.9–5.6)

Paraquat use 3.2 (2.4–4.3)

Neurologic exam

Schulte et al., 1996; USc

43,425 PD cause of death in 27 states 1982–1991

 

Occupational exposure

+

PMR excess in male pesticide appliers, horticultural farmers, farm workers, and graders and sorters of agricultural products

ICD-9 332

Seidler et al., 1996; Germanyb,c

380 <66 years with PD after 1987)

755

Interview—dose-years = years of application weighted by use

+

Neighborhood controls for herbicide 1.7 (1.0–2.7)

Regional controls for herbicide 1.7 (1.0–2.6)

Neurologic exam

Chaturvedi et al., 1995; Canadab

87 (age > 64 years)

2,070

Survey—exposure positive if frequently used

 

Pesticides 1.8 (0.9–3.4)

History of PD

Hertzman et al., 1994; Canadab

127

245

Interview—occupation with probable pesticide exposure

+

Pesticides in men 2.3 (1.1–4.9)

Neurologic exam

Morano et al., 1994; Spainb

74

148

Interview—direct and indirect exposure to pesticides

 

Pesticide 1.73 (1.0–3.0)

Neurologic exam

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

Reference and Country

Study Group

Comparison Group

Exposure Assessment

Significant Association with Pesticides

OR (95 % CI)

Neurologic Dysfunction

Butterfield et al., 1993; USb,c

63 young onset, (age < 50 years)

68

Questionnaire—pesticide or insecticide use 10 times in any year

+

Insecticides 5.8

Herbicides 3.2 (2.5–4.1)

Past dwelling fumigated 5.3

Standard criteria of PD by history

Hubble et al., 1993; USb

63

76

Questionnaire—pesticide or herbicide use 20 days per year for >5 years

+

Pesticide or herbicide 3.4 (1.3–7.3)

Neurologic exam

Jimenez-Jimenez et al., 1992; Spainb

128

256

Interview—exposure: applied pesticides, or lived and ate vegetables where pesticides use

 

Pesticide 1.3 (0.9–2.1)

Standard criteria of PD by history

Semchuk et al., 1992; Canadab,c

130

260

Interview—occupational exposure for each job held >1 month

+

Pesticide 2.25 (1.3–4.0)

Herbicide 3.06 (1.3–7.0)

Insecticide 2.05 (1.0–4.1)

Neurologic exam

Stern et al., 1991; USb

69 (onset before age 40 years)

80 (onset after age 59 years)

149

Interview—insecticides and pesticides measured by self-report of home or garden use

 

Herbicide—young onset 0.9 (0.5–1.7) Herbicide—old onset 1.3 (0.7–2.4)

Standard criteria of PD by history

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

 

Insecticide—young onset 0.6 (0.2–1.7)

Insecticide—old onset 0.8 (0.3–2.1)

 

Wechsler et al., 1991; US

34 (age >39 years)

22

Questionnaire—duration of occupational and home pesticide use

 

Home pesticides used more frequently by cases

Standard criteria of PD by history

Wong et al., 1991; USb

38 (19 sibling pairs with PD)

38 age and sex matched and 19 sibling pairs with essential tremor

Interview—acre-years = number of years exposed multiplied by number of acres applied herbicides or pesticides

 

Herbicides or pesticides 1.0 (0.7–1.4)

Neurologic exam

Golbe et al., 1990; USb,c

106

106

Telephone survey—sprayed pesticides or insect spray once a year for a total of 5 years

+

Sprayed pesticide 7.0 (5.8–8.5)

Neurologic exam

Hertzman et al., 1990; Canada

57

122

Questionnaire—ever worked in an orchard

+

Working in orchards 3.7 (1.3–10.3)

Neurologic exam

Koller et al., 1990; USb

150

150

Interview—acre-years = acres multiplied by years of herbicide or pesticide used

 

Herbicide or pesticide use 1.1 (0.9–1.3)

Neurologic exam

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

Reference and Country

Study Group

Comparison Group

Exposure Assessment

Significant Association with Pesticides

OR (95 % CI)

Neurologic Dysfunction

Ho et al., 1989; Hong Kongb

35 (age >60 years)

105

Interview—use of insecticides or herbicides (Y/N), farming, eating raw vegetables

+

Herbicides and pesticides 3.6 (1.0–12.9)

Neurologic exam

Tanner et al., 1989; China

100

200

Interview—exposure for at least 1 year before onset of PD

 

Fruit growing 1.00 (1.0–1.0) Corn growing 0.54 (0.3–1.1) Rice growing 1.29 (0.7–2.3)

Neurologic exam

a Modified from Le Couteur et al. (1999).

b Studies used in meta-analysis (Priyadarshi et al., 2000).

c Previously quoted in Update 1996 or Update 1998.

ABBREVIATIONS: PMR, proportionate mortality ratio.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
×

diagnosis was based on an initial screening questionnaire and subsequently verified by a neurologist. The incidence for exposed and unexposed subjects, respectively, was estimated at 8.9 and 4.1 cases per 1,000 person-years. The results do suggest increased risk to men with occupational exposure to pesticides, but the use of fungicides in vineyards predominated, rather than any of the compounds of interest with respect to Vietnam veterans. Other design flaws limit inferences regarding associations.

The case–control study from Bordeaux (Baldi et al., 2003b) compared 84 subjects over age 70 with PD who had been recruited from hospital-based specialty clinic practices with a control group of 252 subjects without PD, identified from the previously described cohort. There is no evidence from that study to implicate the compounds of interest to Vietnam veterans.

In a cross-sectional case–control study from Belgium (Pals et al., 2003), numerous historical exposures were compared for case subjects with PD and spouse controls. Relevant to the committee’s charge was the assessment of pesticide exposure; however, no data are presented on herbicides in general or specifically for any of the compounds of interest.

There is no evidence in any of the studies for an association between PD and exposure to the compounds of interest.

Synthesis

Epidemiologic studies have pursued a variety of environmental exposures as potential risk factors for PD, and pesticide use among those receiving the most attention. It has rarely been possible to isolate the effects of selected chemical herbicides, because exposures often are mixed and assessments usually are retrospective, relying on such broad categories as “ever…exposed to any pesticide.” In addition, reported associations have been inconsistent and only rarely has there been evidence for dose–response relationships. Thus, the data are weakened for the committee’s purposes by persistent limitations in methodology and by the lack of specificity for the compounds of interest.

Conclusions

Strength of Evidence from Epidemiologic Studies On the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiologic evidence reviewed here and in previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there remains inadequate or insufficient evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and PD.


Biologic Plausibility Interest in possible environmental causes of PD was increased by the observation that 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,4,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) poisoning induces a movement disorder that recapitulates the classic features of PD. The effects of MPTP and its bioactive metabolite MPP+ have

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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become well-known, and MPTP toxicity has become the preeminent animal model for PD research. Although it is notable that the chemical structure of MPP+ is quite similar to that of paraquat (a commonly used herbicide), it is quite different from the compounds of interest in this report.


Increased Risk of Disease Among Vietnam Veterans The lack of data on the association between exposure to the chemicals of interest and PD, coupled with the lack of exposure information on Vietnam veterans, precludes quantification of any possible increase in their risk.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

ALS is a progressive, adult-onset, motor neuron disease that presents with muscle atrophy, weakness, and fasciculations. Most cases of ALS are sporadic; only 5–10% of cases are familial. The annual incidence of sporadic ALS is 1–2 per 100,000 person-years, and the incidence of ALS peaks between 55 and 75 years of age (Brooks, 1996). One-fifth of familial-ALS patients have mutations in the gene-encoding superoxide dismutase-1 (Rosen et al., 1993). A specific diagnostic test does not exist, but clinical diagnosis has a high degree of accuracy (Rowland, 1998; Rowland and Shneider, 2001).

Summary of VAO, Update 1996, Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002

ALS was first considered by the committee for Update 2002. Table 8-2 summarizes research on the possible association between ALS and pesticide exposures. The research has covered heavy metal exposure (McGuire et al., 1997; Roelofs-Iverson et al., 1984); occupational exposure in chemical plants (Deapen and Henderson, 1986; McGuire et al., 1997); exposure to animal carcasses (Hanisch et al., 1976); the effects of heavy manual labor (Breland and Currier, 1967); working with electricity (Deapen and Henderson, 1986; Savettieri et al., 1991); working with pneumatic tools (Gallagher and Sanders, 1987; Savettieri et al., 1991); working in the plastic industry (Deapen and Henderson, 1986); and working as a truck driver (Kurtzke and Beebe, 1980).

Pesticide exposure has been associated with increased risk of ALS, including a twofold increased risk from long-term occupational exposure to pesticides (Deapen and Henderson, 1986), a threefold increased risk from exposure to agricultural chemical products (Savettieri et al., 1991), and a threefold increased risk from exposure to herbicides (McGuire et al., 1997), although none of those risk estimates was statistically significant.

A population-based case–control study demonstrated associations between exposure to agricultural chemical products and ALS in men, with a statistically significant 2.4-fold increased risk, a statistically significant trend by duration of exposure, and a 4.4-fold increased risk from heavy exposure in accidents or spills

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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TABLE 8-2 Epidemiologic Studies of Pesticide Exposure and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Reference; Country

Study Group

Comparison Group

Exposure Assessment

Significant Association Pesticides

OR with (95% CI)

Neurologic Dysfunction Diagnosis

Burns et al., 2001; US

1,567

40,600

Industrial hygienist ranked job exposure. Cumulative exposure, years, or each job times weighted exposure

+

3.45 (1.1–11.1)

Death certificates

Chancellor et al., 1993; Scotland

103

103

Required regular occupational exposure to pesticides for 12 months or more

 

1.4 (0.6–3.1)

Scottish Motor Neuron Register

Deapen and Henderson, 1986; US

518

518

Ever worked in presence of pesticides

 

2.0 (0.8–5.4)

ALS Society of America

McGuire et al., 1997; US

174

348

Self-reported lifetime job history and workplace exposure reviewed by panel of four industrial hygienists

+

2.4 (1.2–4.8); significant trend analysis for dose-effect relationship p = 0.03

Newly diagnosed with ALS 1990–1994 in western Washington state

Savettieri et al., 1991; Italy

46

92

Continual exposure to agricultural chemicals

 

3.0 (0.4–20.3)

Cases reviewed by neurologists

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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(McGuire et al., 1997). A mortality study of Dow Chemical Company employees exposed to 2,4-D included 3 deaths from ALS, with a significantly increased mortality rate of 3.45 (Burns et al., 2001).

Although the findings were intriguing, the committee was concerned about the small number of subjects involved.

Update of the Scientific Literature

No relevant epidemiologic studies have been published since Update 2002.

Synthesis

As with PD, epidemiologic studies of ALS have pursued a variety of environmental exposures as potential risk factors. Among those receiving the most attention have been pesticides. It has rarely been possible to isolate the effects of selected herbicides, as exposures often have been mixed and assessment usually has been retrospective, relying on such broad categories as “ever…exposed to any pesticide.” Reported associations have been inconsistent and only rarely has there been evidence for dose–response relationships. Thus, although there is some evidence that exposure to pesticides might be associated with increased risk for ALS, those data are weakened for the committee’s purposes by persistent methodologic limitations and by the lack of specificity for the compounds of interest.

Conclusions

Strength of Evidence from Epidemiologic Studies On the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiologic evidence reviewed here and in previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there remains inadequate or insufficient evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.


Biologic Plausibility There were no new animal studies that were relevant to the compounds of interest and ALS. A summary of biologic plausibility is presented at the end of this chapter.


Increased Risk of Disease Among Vietnam Veterans The lack of data on the association between exposure to the chemicals of interest and ALS, coupled with the lack of exposure information on Vietnam veterans, precludes quantification of any possible increase in their risk.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY

Peripheral neuropathy consists of disorders of the PNS. Manifestations of this syndrome can include a combination of sensory changes, motor weakness, or autonomic instability. Clinically, various forms of peripheral neuropathy can be characterized by the distribution of nerve abnormalities and their patterns of progression. For example, a peripheral neuropathy resulting from toxic exposure usually affects the limbs in a symmetric pattern, beginning distally (in the toes) and moving proximally (toward the spine), providing the basis for the term “dying-back neuropathy,” now more rigorously referred to as “distal axonopathy.” Thus, sensory deficits at the ankle generally occur after deficits in the toes. Physiologically, various forms of peripheral neuropathy can be characterized by results from electrodiagnostic testing to indicate which neural structures are affected. Most toxin-induced neuropathies involve injury to the nerve cell bodies (neurons) or nerve fibers (axons), which produce changes in the amplitude of a nerve’s response to an electrical stimulus. In severe cases, there also can be slowing in the speed of nerve impulses. This contrasts with the prominent slowing of nerve conduction velocity (NCV) resulting from injury to myelin, as seen with inflammatory conditions such as Guillain-Barré syndrome.

The clinical appearances of several peripheral neuropathies can be virtually identical, so it is often difficult to determine whether a peripheral neuropathy is caused by a toxic exposure. Sometimes there are clues from particular features of the clinical history and presentation that suggest toxic exposure, but complaints of peripheral nerve disorders often occur in isolation and are monotonously similar, making etiologic determination difficult. As many as 30% of cases are “idiopathic,” having no etiology determined despite exhaustive clinical evaluation.

The most common toxin-induced neuropathy occurs as a result of chronic alcohol exposure. Peripheral neuropathy also occurs commonly as a complication of diabetes, with a prevalence of up to 50% reported in people with chronic diabetes. It is important to include assessment of alcohol use and diabetes as covariates in epidemiologic studies, because the neuropathies that are related to those conditions are clinically and physiologically indistinguishable from other toxin-induced neuropathies.

Clinically, in cases of toxin-induced peripheral neuropathy, stabilization or improvement is the rule after exposure ends. Recovery might not be complete, however, and the degree of recovery can depend on the severity of the initial deficits. Furthermore, there is the possibility of “subclinical” effects, and a person might be unaware of symptoms, although evidence for nerve dysfunction can be found in a detailed neurologic examination or through electrodiagnostic testing.

In VAO, peripheral neuropathy was considered a single category of disease. Before revising the conclusion regarding neuropathies, the committee for Update 1996 subdivided them into “acute and subacute” or “chronic” classifications (on the basis of when an outcome occurs relative to exposure). In this section of this

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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report, however, the terms “acute” (brief) and “chronic” (prolonged or protracted) describe the time course of toxin exposure. “Early” and “delayed onset” are used to describe the time course of the neuropathy. The distinction between “transient” and “persistent” is not always clear, because recovery may be incomplete. The committee considers a neuropathy to be early onset and transient if abnormalities appear and resolve within two years after cessation of external exposure.

Summary of VAO, Update 1996, Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002

VAO and subsequent Updates noted that the literature on peripheral neuropathy has been difficult to integrate because it is characterized by variable methodologies that lack uniform operational definitions. The techniques used to identify affected persons, to define comparison populations, and to assess exposures differ considerably among studies. Also, many of the studies are limited by non-random selection, which raises concern for bias, and by the relatively small number of participants, which decreases confidence of risk estimates and limits the power to detect a true association. There have been variable results, with some studies demonstrating abnormalities of peripheral nerve function and others not.

In VAO, the committee reviewed results from four occupational-cohort studies of workers previously exposed to the compounds of interest (Moses et al., 1984; Singer et al., 1982; Suskind and Hertzberg; 1984; Sweeney et al., 1993). Singer et al. (1982) reported slowed NCVs in 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T production workers who were examined 2 months after exposures were reduced. In former 2,4,5-T production workers with a history of chloracne (10 years after last exposure), Moses et al. (1984) found diminished pin-prick sensation, but Suskind and Hertzbert (1984) did not find differences in NCVs. Similarly, Sweeney et al. (1993) reported decreased pin-prick sensation, but no differences in NCVs in former herbicide production workers (evaluated 15 years or more after their last exposure).

VAO also reviewed epidemiologic studies of populations potentially exposed to TCDD in the environment. A series of studies from Italy evaluated peripheral neuropathy in the population from Seveso after the industrial accident on July 10, 1976 (Assennato et al., 1989; Barbieri et al., 1988; Boeri et al., 1978; Filippini et al., 1981; Gilioli et al., 1979). Boeri et al. (1978) reported more frequent symptoms and signs of neuropathy in a cohort of residents living in the contaminated area than in a comparison group who were last examined 7–10 months after the explosion. There was no statistical difference in conduction velocity between groups. Gilioli et al. (1979) noted electrodiagnostic abnormalities in laboratory technicians potentially exposed to TCDD from analytical samples; however, the technicians also were exposed to solvents used in the analytical process. Fillipini et al. (1981) reported an increased prevalence of peripheral neuropathy in Seveso residents with evidence of high exposure to TCDD (chloracne or liver enzyme abnormalities) who were last examined 21 months after the accident. Barbieri et

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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al. (1988) reported a higher rate of abnormalities on neurologic examination and electrodiagnostic testing in subjects with a history of chloracne who were examined 6 years after the accident, but there was no significant increase in peripheral neuropathy as defined by World Health Organization (WHO) criteria. Assennato et al. (1989) described electrodiagnostic evaluation of that group 9 years after the accident; no differences were observed in NCV or neuropathy as defined by WHO criteria. Other environmental studies reviewed in VAO were of Missouri residents potentially exposed to TCDD in the early 1970s when waste oil was sprayed to control dust (Hoffman et al., 1986; Stehr et al., 1986; Webb et al., 1987). Although more frequent sensory abnormalities were reported in potentially exposed subjects, the differences were not statistically significant, and the semi-ecological study design was not suited to causal inference. Some of the data from epidemiologic studies of environmental exposures have suggested increased risk of peripheral nerve abnormalities, but evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and peripheral neuropathy is inconsistent.

Studies of Vietnam veterans were also reviewed in VAO (AFHS, 1984, 1987, 1991; CDC, 1988). A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study (CDC, 1988) focused on service in Vietnam, not on exposure to the compounds of interest, and it therefore provided no evidence for the possible effects of exposures. There was no indication of increased risk of peripheral neuropathy from the first Ranch Hand reports (AFHS, 1984, 1987, 1991). No evidence of an association between exposure and peripheral neuropathy in Vietnam veterans was derived from the studies reviewed in VAO.

Update 1996 reviewed two new epidemiologic studies. Using an administrative database, Zober et al. (1994) found no evidence of increased medical service utilization for diagnosis of peripheral neuropathy in workers previously exposed to TCDD at a BASF plant. Decoufle et al. (1992) reported no association between self-reported exposure to herbicides in Vietnam and peripheral neuropathy. The limitations of those studies were such that they did not confirm or refute a possible relationship between exposure and neuropathy.

In addition, the committee responsible for Update 1996 reviewed case reports that described peripheral neuropathy after exposures to the compounds of interest (Berkley and Magee, 1963; Goldstein et al., 1959; Todd, 1962). In each instance, the peripheral neuropathy improved gradually, but had not resolved completely even after several months or years. The possibility cannot be entirely excluded that the five cases reported in these publications were unrelated to herbicide exposure and represented examples of other disorders, such as idiopathic Guillain-Barré syndrome. The committee also considered several supportive animal models (Grahmann et al., 1993; Grehl et al., 1993; see section on biological plausibility). The committee concluded that there was limited or suggestive evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and early-onset transient peripheral neuropathy.

Update 1998 reviewed no new studies. The context for the issue of peripheral

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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neuropathy, its relationship with toxic exposures, and the occurence of diabetes mellitus was discussed. In particular, it was noted that neuropathy is a common consequence of diabetes. That was particularly relevant, and the committee issued a special report a year later concluding that there was limited or suggestive evidence of an association between diabetes and exposure to Agent Orange.

Update 2000 reviewed the most recent Ranch Hand report available at that time (AFHS, 2000), which combined signs of peripheral neuropathy to produce increasingly specific, graded indexes of neuropathy—a common approach in epidemiologic studies. Ranch Hand subjects were significantly more likely than were comparison subjects to have abnormalities in the indexes, and the prevalence of abnormalities increased with dioxin concentration. Although the clinical relevance of epidemiologic indexes of neuropathy is never certain, the strong associations described between the indexes and the conditions known to produce peripheral neuropathy, such as diabetes and alcohol use, supported their validity in this study. The AFHS investigators included those conditions as potential confounders in the statistical analysis. However, the effect of diabetes could not be eliminated in the most specific neuropathy index, because there were not enough non-diabetic subjects. It therefore was impossible to estimate the association between dioxin exposure and neuropathy, absent any effect of diabetes.

The committee responsible for Update 2002 considered one peer-reviewed article that described the peripheral neuropathy data from the Ranch Hand cohort (Michalek et al., 2001). In primary analysis, the investigators had included diabetes as a potential confounder in the statistical model. In a secondary analysis, subjects with conditions that were known to be associated with neuropathy were excluded, and subjects with diabetes were enumerated. In both sets of analyses, there were strong and significant associations between possible and probable neuropathy and dioxin concentration, and significant trends were found with increasing concentrations of dioxin. However, there were too few non-diabetic subjects to produce meaningful estimates of risk, absent the contribution of diabetes. Thus, questions remained about the specific association between exposure to the compounds of interest and peripheral neuropathy absent any effect of diabetes.

Update of the Scientific Literature

Peripheral neuropathy was one outcome considered in the study of Korean Vietnam veterans (Kim et al., 2003; see the section on neurobehavioral disorders and Chapter 4 for a description of the study). It was significantly more common in Vietnam veterans than in non-Vietnam veterans, with a 2.4-fold risk (95% CI, 1.04–5.48) even after controlling for alcohol use and age, although there were no differences based on estimated TCDD exposure within subgroups of Vietnam veterans. Diabetes was also more common in Vietnam veterans. The authors concluded that there was an excess frequency of peripheral neuropathy in Vietnam veterans.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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Although the study groups differed in terms of known risk factors for neuropathy, including age, alcohol use, and diabetes, the authors controlled for possible confounding by including age and alcohol use in the statistical analysis. It is not clear how diabetes was handled, but the report distinguishes between “peripheral neuropathy,” for which there was a significant difference between groups, and “neuropathy with diabetes,” which was not significantly different between the groups. The possibility of selection bias is a concern—only 28% of eligible Vietnam veterans participated in the study and participation may have been related to health status. Therefore, the study provides some evidence of an association between service in Vietnam and peripheral neuropathy, although the weight of the results is limited because of the study’s limitations. The study does not provide evidence for an association between specific exposure to the compounds of interest and peripheral neuropathy.

Synthesis

Over the past 50 years, a body of literature has accumulated suggesting an association between the compounds of interest and peripheral neuropathy. Past committees have concluded that there is evidence for an association between “acute and subacute transient” peripheral neuropathy and exposure to at least one compound of interest (Update 1996). However, there remained questions about whether there was evidence for an association with persistent neuropathy.

Human case reports have documented peripheral neuropathy after acute exposure to large amounts of 2,4-D as shown by neurologic examination and electrodiagnostic testing. Reports have indicated eventual symptom stabilization and improvement, but sensory and motor deficits have persisted in some people for months or years after the exposure ended.

Several epidemiologic studies have reported increased risk of peripheral neuropathy in populations exposed to the compounds of interest in a variety of occupational and environmental settings. However, the literature is inconsistent and has suffered from methodological limitations. The most dramatic exposures have involved industrial accidents that caused environmental contamination, such as the one in Seveso, Italy, in 1976. Studies of residents in that region have shown early onset neuropathy and subclinical abnormalities in some subjects have been demonstrated using electrodiagnostic testing.

Epidemiologic studies, using appropriate comparison groups and standard techniques for diagnosis and assessment of exposure, have not demonstrated consistent associations between exposure to the compounds of interest and the development of peripheral neuropathy. Several reports have shown no significant association, and for the reports that did indicate an association, chance, bias, or confounding could not be ruled out with confidence. In particular, it is possible that diabetes confounds the results, because many of the subjects with neuropathy also had diabetes, and diabetes is a known cause of neuropathy. Controlling for

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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the effects of diabetes is a technical challenge because there is evidence for an association between diabetes and exposure to at least one of the compounds of interest (IOM, 2003); in many cases, diabetes could be in the causal pathway that links exposure and peripheral neuropathy.

Conclusions

Strength of Evidence from Epidemiologic Studies

On the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiologic evidence reviewed here and in previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there is limited or suggestive evidence of an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and early onset transient peripheral neuropathy.

However, on the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiologic evidence reviewed here and previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there is inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and delayed or persistent peripheral neuropathy.

Biologic Plausibility

Toxicology experiments have demonstrated adverse effects of the compounds of interest on nerve cells at a molecular and cellular level; many common mechanisms of neurotoxicity are involved. Neuronal cell cultures treated with 2,4-D showed decreased neurite extension associated with intracellular changes, including a decrease in microtubules, inhibition of the polymerization of tubulin, disorganization of the Golgi apparatus, and inhibition of ganglioside synthesis. Those mechanisms are important for maintaining synaptic connections between nerve cells and supporting the mechanisms involved in axon regeneration during recovery from peripheral neuropathy. Whole-animal experiments have demonstrated that TCDD treatments affect the fundamental molecular events that underlie neurotransmission. Grahmann et al. (1993) and Grehl et al. (1993) reported on abnormalities in electrophysiology and pathology, respectively, observed in the peripheral nerves of a set of rats treated with TCDD. Those treatments did not produce a wasting syndrome, nor was there evidence of general organ system failure. When the animals were sacrificed 8 months after exposure, there was pathologic evidence for persistent axonal nerve damage and histologic findings typical of toxin-induced injury. Those results provide evidence for the biologic plausibility of an association between peripheral neuropathy and exposure to the compounds of interest. Replicating and extending these findings would strengthen the observation and could provide additional insight regarding pathophysiologic mechanisms.

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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Increased Risk of Disease Among Vietnam Veterans

The lack of data supporting an association between exposure to the chemicals of interest and peripheral neuropathy, coupled with the lack of exposure information on Vietnam veterans, precludes quantification of any possible increase in their risk.

SUMMARY

Strength of Evidence from Epidemiologic Studies

On the basis of its evaluation of the epidemiologic evidence reviewed here and in previous VAO reports, the committee concludes that there is inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine an association between exposure to the compounds of interest (2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, TCDD, picloram, or cacodylic acid) and neurobehavioral disorders (cognitive or neuropsychiatric) or movement disorders (PD or ALS). The evidence regarding association is drawn from studies of Vietnam veterans and from occupational and other studies in which subjects were exposed to a variety of herbicides and herbicide components.

In Update 1996, the committee stated that there was limited or suggestive evidence of an association between exposure to at least one of the compounds of interest and “acute and subacute transient” peripheral neuropathy. The evidence was drawn from occupational and other studies in which subjects were exposed to a variety of herbicides and herbicide components. Information available to the committees responsible for Update 1998, Update 2000, and Update 2002 supported that conclusion. In this report, the committee concludes that there is limited or suggestive evidence of an association between exposure and “early onset, transient” peripheral neuropathy.

The committee also concludes that there is inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine an association between exposure to the compounds of interest and “delayed or persistent” peripheral neuropathy. That conclusion is based on evaluation of the accumulated epidemiologic evidence described here, some of which was detailed in earlier VAO reports. The evidence is drawn from epidemiologic studies of Vietnam veterans, from occupational studies, and from other studies in which subjects were exposed to at least one compound of interest.

Biologic Plausibility

This section summarizes the biologic plausibility of a connection between exposure to the compounds of interest and various neurologic disorders, on the basis of data from experimental studies (see Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion).

The effects of TCDD are mediated by interaction with the AhR, a protein

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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found in animal and human cells. The AhR complex is known to bind DNA and produce changes in transcription, thereby influencing genetic function. The AhR complex can produce an array of molecular effects that influence cell growth, hormone regulation, and normal cellular metabolism. Although some structural differences have been identified in the AhRs of different species, the AhR is functionally similar across species. Therefore, data from animal studies can be used to support the biologic plausibility of human neurotoxicity.

Basic scientific studies have emphasized the importance of alterations in neurotransmitter systems as potential mechanisms that underlie TCDD-induced neurobehavioral disorders. Neuronal cultures treated with 2,4-D exhibited decreased neurite extension associated with intracellular changes, including a decrease in microtubules, inhibition of the polymerization of tubulin, disorganization of the Golgi apparatus, and inhibition of ganglioside synthesis. Those mechanisms are important for maintaining the connections between nerve cells that are necessary for neuronal function and that are involved in axon regeneration and recovery from peripheral neuropathy. Animal experiments have demonstrated that TCDD treatments affect the fundamental molecular events that underlie neurotransmission initiated by calcium uptake. Mechanistic studies have demonstrated that 2,4,5-T can alter cellular metabolism and cholinergic transmission necessary for neuromuscular transmission.

TCDD treatment produces peripheral neuropathy in rats. Treatment at doses that do not cause general systemic illness or wasting disease produces electrodiagnostic changes in peripheral nerve function and pathologic findings that are characteristic of toxin-induced axonal peripheral neuropathy.

The foregoing evidence demonstrates biologic plausibility for a connection between Agent Orange exposure and neurotoxic effects in humans. Experiments with 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and TCDD indicate toxic effects on nerve cells that are molecular and cellular, demonstrating evidence for common mechanisms of neurotoxicity. Experiments with TCDD in whole animals demonstrate specific effects on the PNS at doses that do not cause general systemic illness. As discussed in Chapter 3, extrapolation of those observations to humans is complicated by differences in sensitivity and susceptibility among animals, strains, and species; by the lack of strong evidence of organ-specific effects across species; and by differences in route, dose, duration, and timing of chemical exposures. Thus, although the observations in themselves cannot support a conclusion that Agent Orange produces neurotoxic effects in humans, the studies provide evidence for the biologic plausibility of an association.

Increased Risk of Disease Among Vietnam Veterans

The inadequacy of data supporting an association of neurological effects (other than early onset, transient peripheral neuropathy) with exposure to the

Suggested Citation:"8 Neurologic Disorders." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11242.
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chemicals of interest, coupled with the lack of exposure information on Vietnam-eterans, precludes quantification of any possible increase in their risk.

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Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004 Get This Book
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Sixth in a series of congressionally mandated studies, this book is an updated review and evaluation of the available evidence regarding the statistical assoication between exposure to herbicides used in Vietnam and various adverse health outcomes suspected to be linked with such exposure.

This book builds upon the information contained in the earlier books in the series:

  • Veterans and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam (1994)
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1996
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 1998
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2000
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2002
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Herbicides and Dioxin Exposure and Type 2 Diabetes (2000)
    • Veterans and Agent Orange: Herbicide/Dioxin Exposure and Acute Myelogenous Leukemia in the Children of Vietnam Veterans (2002)

      Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004 focuses primarily on scientific studies and other information developed since the release of these earlier books. The previous volumes have noted that sufficient evidence exists to link chronic lymphocytic leukemia, soft-tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, and chloracne with exposure. The books also noted that there is “limited or suggestive” evidence of an association between exposure and respiratory cancers, prostate cancer, multiple myeloma, the metabolic disorder porphyria cutanea tarda, early-onset transient peripheral neuropathies, Type 2 diabetes, and the congenital birth defect spinal bifida in veterans’ children. This volume will be critically important to both policymakers and physicians in the federal government, Vietnam veterans and their families, veterans’ organizations, researchers, and health professionals.

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