National Academies Press: OpenBook

Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity? (2006)

Chapter: Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
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F-1
Evidence Table Codebook

Each research study included in the systematic evidence review was coded on several descriptive and evaluative dimensions. Text description and commentary was also provided. This Codebook was used by each coder to ensure consistency in the information and judgments entered into the Evidence Table. Anything in bold should be entered exactly as described so that information on that variable can be sorted later.

Reference: Author Name(s)

Enter the last name(s) of the author(s) in order. If two authors, enter both last names separated by a comma. If more than two authors, use “et al.” after the last name of the first author.

Reference: Year

Enter the publication year; use all four digits for the year.

Link Number (#)

Enter the number of the link (relationship) that is being studied: 1 if the relationship is between marketing and a precursor (mediator) to diet, 3 if the relationship is between marketing and diet, and 5 if the relationship is between marketing and diet-related health. If the study has information or sub-studies about more than one link, make each link a separate line in the Evidence Table.

For studies in which television viewing was measured and interpreted as an indicator of exposure to televised advertising, add TV after the link number.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
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Link? Y/N

Enter Y (yes) if the link is significant at p equal to or less than .05; enter N (no) otherwise. For studies with statistical tests of more than one measure of the cause and/or effect or with statistical tests of various subgroups (e.g., boys and girls)—all for the same link—enter Y if any of the tests were significant and describe them all in the abstract. If none are significant, enter N.

Research Method

Enter one of the following six abbreviations (in parentheses). See the definitions that follow the terms.

  • Natural experiment (Exp-N)

  • Randomized trial (Exp)

  • Panel (L-Pnl)

  • Cohort (L-Coh)

  • Trend (L-Trnd)

  • Cross-sectional (CS)

Experimental Studies

  • Natural experiment (Exp-N): Treatment assigned serendipitously but randomly. For example, in the early 1990s in the Milwaukee School Voucher program, there were more students who applied for school vouchers than vouchers available. All applicants were entered in a lottery, with only the winners getting vouchers.

  • Randomized trial (Exp): Treatment assigned deliberately and randomly.

Nonexperimental (Observational) Studies

Longitudinal Studies:

  • Panel (L-Pnl): Measures the same sample of individuals at different points in time.

  • Cohort (L-Coh): Similar subjects (age, demographics, etc.) are followed over time and compared on outcome or descriptive measures (e.g., health). Cohort studies typically involve a sample in which some individuals have a property and some do not (e.g., smokers versus nonsmokers).

  • Trend (L-Trnd): Samples different groups of people at different points in time from the same population, using the same measures.

Cross-Sectional Studies:

  • Cross-sectional (CS): Nonexperimental study at a single point in time.

Cause Variable

Briefly describe the marketing variable considered the causal (initiating,

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

independent) variable in the research. To describe it, use short, simple terms such as “vending machines in school,” “exposure to food ads,” and “television viewing.” If there are multiple cause variables, all for the same link number, describe them all. Do not create separate lines for each variable. If some are significant and some are not (again all testing the same link in the model), enter Y in the link-significant column and describe all of the p-values for all the cause variables (testing the same link) in the mini-abstract. Do not describe the specifics of how the variable was measured.

In this column, to the extent possible, use a very short, general descriptor, closely tied to (if not the same as) one of the terms in the initiating variable box for the link in the Conceptual Framework that is being studied.

Cause Variable Measure

Describe the way(s) in which the independent variable was measured (for a nonexperimental study) or implemented in treatment conditions (for experimental study). Do so only for the link identified in this line of the Evidence Table. As examples, measurement techniques could be “self-report questionnaire,” “parent interview,” “sound-activated videotaping in rooms with television sets,” or “ads taken from cable stations and inserted into cartoons taken from similar cable stations.”

Cause Variable Category

Based on a description of the cause variable and how it was measured, determine which of the following possible categories best describes it. If more than one cause variable (with the same link) or more than one measure of the same cause were used, choose the best description for each.

  • TV ads: Experiment

  • TV ads: Viewing only

  • TV ads: Observed in natural setting

  • TV ads: Viewing + other media

  • TV ads: Campaign

  • Product placement in film

  • Print ads

  • Radio ads

  • Multimedia campaign

  • Price and promotion

  • Other

Effect Variable

Briefly describe the variable considered the effect (consequent, dependent) variable in the research. It will be a precursor, diet, or diet-related health variable. To describe it, use simple terms such as “food preferences,” “belief food is good for you,” “increased drinking of Pepsi.” If there are multiple effect variables, all for the same link number, describe them all. Do

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

not create separate lines for each variable. If some are significant and some are not (again all testing the same link in the model), enter Y in the link significant column and describe all of the p-values for all the effect variables (testing the same link) in the mini-abstract. In this column, don’t describe the specifics of how the variable was measured.

In this column, to the extent possible, use a very short, general descriptor, closely tied to (if not the same as) one of the terms in the box for the link in the Conceptual Framework that is being studied.

Effect Variable Measure

Describe the way(s) in which the dependent variable was measured. Describe all measures for every variable treated as a dependent variable for the link identified in this line of the evidence table. As examples, measurement techniques could be “self-report questionnaire,” “parent interview,” “observations at school cafeteria,” “total sales,” or “body mass index (BMI) calculated from weight and height measured by health professional.”

Effect Variable Category

Based on a description of the effect variable and how it was measured, determine which of the following possible categories best describes it. If more than one effect variable (with the same link) or more than one measure of the same effect were used, choose the best description for each. In parentheses is the link number for which each effect variable term can be used.

  • Preferences (Link 1)

  • Requests (Link 1)

  • Beliefs (Link 1)

  • Short-term consumption (Link 3)

  • Usual diet (Link 3)

  • Adiposity (Link 5)

  • Other (Links 1, 3, 5)

Sample Size

Enter the sample size as a number. If the number is 1,000 or greater, use a comma. Choose the number that is included in the analyses not the number the researcher started with, if these numbers are different. If there is significant participant loss, note that in the “Other Comments” column. If more than one sample was studied, make each sample a separate line.

In the mini-abstract, if useful, include more information about the sample; for example, include text description and numbers for different sectors of the sample (e.g., 100 children/teens and 100 parents, one parent for each child/teen). You might also decide to mention participant loss/attrition here.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Sample Age

Enter IT, YC, OC, or T if the sample is respectively all infants and toddlers (under 2 years of age), younger children (2–5 years), older children (6–11 years), or teens (12–18 years). If the sample is largely just one of these groups, enter that age group only or enter where the mean of the group falls (e.g., “mean 5.7,” “preschool and some kindergarten,” and “age 4 plus/minus 2 years” are all entered as YC). If the sample is described as more than one of these groups, enter the relevant letters, following the IT, YC, OC, T order (e.g., “OCT” not “TOC” for a sample of teenagers and older children). Do not use commas to separate the letters. If the sample was tested more than once, enter the age group for the sample when first tested. If at the later testing(s), the sample has grown into an older age group, add that. If still in the same age group, add nothing. If the article has no information about the age of the participants, enter No Info.

Indicate in the mini-abstract if the sample age clusters in one part of the indicated age range (e.g., if the sample of “older children” is only 6- and 7-year-olds, indicate this in the mini-abstract).

Note that it is not uncommon to see a child’s age described as “3-11” or “6-1” to denote that the child was 3 years, 11 months, or 6 years, 1 month, respectively. When read in context, the reviewer should be able to figure out whether “3-11” means 3 years, 11 months, or 3 to 11 years.

Measure Quality

Enter H, M, or L to indicate high, medium, or low, following the guidance below. In the “Other Comments” column, include a brief description of the rationale for your rating choice. In general, the quality of the measure of the independent/cause variable is more important than the quality of the measure of the dependent/effect variable in determining this rating. Measurement of the control variables in a non-experimental study is also important. Finally, if any self-report measure is used, the best rating possible is M for overall measurement quality.

There are three primary criteria for evaluating the quality of measures in a study: validity, reliability, and precision, each of which is explained in more detail below.

  • Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument directly and accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

  • Reliability assesses the extent to which the same measurement technique, applied repeatedly, is likely to yield the same results.

  • Precision refers to the fineness or coarseness of a measure.

Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which an operationalized measure di-

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
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rectly and accurately measures the concept it is intended to measure. In measuring a child’s food preferences in response to an ad, for example, a measure in which a child’s actual food consumption was recorded is more valid than a measure in which a child’s self-report of his/her future intentions was recorded. The total amount of TV watched is often used as a measure of the total exposure to advertising, but such a measure is lower in validity than is a direct measure of advertising exposure. For example, some people might channel surf or do chores during ads or they might watch programs with ads that are unlikely to be relevant to children.

Bias affects validity, but certain kinds of bias are much worse than others. A highly reliable bathroom scale that is set 7 pounds light is biased, but its bias is constant, the scale measures what it is supposed to, and thus the scale still has high validity, especially when measuring change in weight over time. Self-reports of socially undesirable behaviors are usually biased, and the amount of bias usually varies with the amount of social undesirability (e.g., heavy candy eaters are likely to underreport more severely than are those who eat less candy).

Reliability

Reliability assesses the extent to which the same measurement technique, applied repeatedly, is likely to yield the same results when it is believed that the variable measured has not changed. Measuring a child’s weight with a good bathroom scale is highly reliable, but measuring the child’s cumulative exposure to environmental lead since birth by measuring the concentration of lead in drawn blood is not reliable (it varies greatly from day to day). Almost no one can remember every bit of food he or she consumed last week, so measures that depend on recall are typically low in reliability (and also typically low on validity).

Reliability is often important in studies involving subjective coding of observed behavior. One, we want the same coder to score the same behavior in the same way across times (intracoder reliability), and two, we want different coders to score the same behavior in the same way (intercoder reliability).

Precision

Precision refers to the fineness or coarseness of a measure. For example, recording family income as low, medium, or high is less precise than recording the number of dollars in family income, such as $18,500.

Overall Scoring for Measure Quality

Studies that rank high on all three factors—high on validity AND on

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

reliability AND on precision—would be considered to have H, high measure quality.

Studies that rank high on one or two of the three factors and low on none would be considered to have M, medium measure quality.

Studies that do not rank high on any of the three factors or that rank low on at least one would be considered to have L, low measurement quality.

Causality Evidence

Enter H, M, or L to indicate high, medium, or low, following the guidance below. In the “Other Comments” column, include a brief description of the rationale for your rating choice.

The rating of causality evidence is entirely separate from that for ecological validity. The idea is to rate the quality of the case that can be made for interpreting a statistically significant association as causal and not just an association. We separate experimental studies from observational studies in explaining how to do the rating.

Experimental Studies

1. Treatment Bias

The essential feature of an experimental study that allows causal inference is that assignment of treatment be independent of any potential confounder, that is, any property that might also have an influence on the outcome. When treatment is assigned randomly, treatment bias is (at least in theory) eliminated. In natural experiments, or experiments without randomized assignment of treatment, treatment bias is a real concern.

For example, an experiment comparing an online course on computer programming to a human-taught course on the same topic in which participants were allowed to choose the condition would obviously suffer from treatment bias, as those with high computing aptitude and/or experience are more likely to choose the online condition.

The antidote to treatment bias is analogous to what is required in observational studies: we must measure and statistically control for the confounding property, perhaps with a pretest. For example, if the online/ human study measured computer aptitude prior to the course and then controlled for it, treatment bias would not be a large concern.

2. Dropout/Attrition Bias

Experiments in which dropout during the trial is associated with a potential confounder are suspect for causal inference. For example, in the Milwaukee School Voucher evaluation “natural experiment,” in which all participants wanted vouchers but only those who won a lottery received them, both groups experienced fairly high dropout rates between the enroll-

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

ment period and the post-test. Researchers were concerned that, among the students who did not win the lottery, those who dropped out were the ones with aggressive concerned parents, leaving behind those likely to learn less.

3. Measurement

Studies in which the measures have low validity are suspect for causal inference. For example, an experiment in which the cause of interest was advertising exposure—but only overall TV watching was experimentally manipulated—suffers from this problem because overall TV exposure is a weak measure of advertising exposure.

4. Experimental Studies—Summary

Experimental studies with no treatment bias, no dropout bias, and reasonable validity in measurement should be given H, High Causality Evidence. Studies with serious treatment bias should be given L, Low Causality Evidence.

Observational Studies

In an observational study, an association between a putative cause X and an effect Y might be due to any combination of (1) X is a cause of Y, (2) some third factor is a common cause of both, or (3) Y is a cause of X. The overall assessment of causal validity rides on how convincingly the study eliminates possibilities 2 and 3.

1. Time

One common strategy is to use time order to eliminate possibility 3. The fact that X is measured prior to Y, however, does nothing to eliminate possibility 2, that there is a confounder that occurs prior to both X and Y that is responsible for both X and Y and accounts for the apparent association between X and Y.

2. Confounders/Controls/Omitted Variables/Covariates

2a. Inclusion

The most common obstacle to causal inference in observational studies is the possibility that the statistical association between the putative cause and effect might be spurious, that is, due to an omitted variable that is a cause of both. Such factors are commonly referred to as confounders, covariates, third variables, omitted variables, etc.

To be rated H, High on causal inference validity, an observational study must include—that is, measure and statistically control for—all confounders that are significantly associated with both the cause and effect. A study that controls for most significant but not all possible confounders can still be rated M, Medium on causal inference validity.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

2b. Measures

Measurement is crucial to causal inference in observational studies, but not in a simple way. If any of the measures lacks validity, then the case for causality is weakened.

Although a lack of precision or reliability in the dependent variable will affect the statistical inference (the standard errors and p-values), it will not bias the coefficient estimate and is of little or no consequence to the causal inference validity.

When the cause, or independent, variable is measured with low reliability, then the estimate of its effect is biased toward zero, making it harder to find a significant p-value, and thus in some sense strengthening the case for causation.

When a covariate, that is, a variable being “controlled for” in the analysis, is measured with low reliability or precision, however, the estimate of the association between cause and effect will be biased.1 In some cases the bias will be toward zero, and in others away from zero. The direction of the bias is the same as the case in which the variable is entirely left out of the analysis.

3. Observational Studies—Summary

An observational study should score H, High on Causality Evidence when (a) the possibility that the response variable is a cause of the independent variable can be eliminated (perhaps by time), (b) the cause and effect are measured with high validity, and (3) all significant confounders have been included and measured with high validity, reliability, and precision.

Ecological Validity

Enter H, M, or L to indicate high, medium, or low, following guidance below. In the “Other Comments” column, include a brief description of the rationale for your rating choice.

Ecological validity refers to the extent to which an investigation’s research setting, stimuli, and response demands are similar to those of the naturally occurring settings, stimuli, and responses characteristic of the behavioral system being studied.

H, high ecological validity, occurs when the research setting and stimuli/cause and effect/response are similar to those of the system under investigation.

1  

The sign of the bias is the same as the bias that would result if the variable was omitted from the analysis entirely, and the size of the bias is proportional to the size of the measurement problem. A covariate with a highly imprecise measure will result in more bias than one with a mildly imprecise measure.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

An example would be an experiment that manipulated the signage on the vending machines in schools with the measured responses being the purchases made from the vending machines. Another example would be a survey in which parents and children reported on the children’s home television viewing and daily diet.

M, medium ecological validity, occurs when the research setting or the stimuli or the responses are similar to those of the system under investigation.

An example would be an experiment in which children are brought to a university laboratory, shown a children’s TV program with embedded food commercials, and then allowed to choose food from a selection of food items. The foods chosen and the amounts eaten are the responses. In this case, the setting is not a natural setting for the child, but the stimuli (children’s TV program and commercials) and the responses are at least moderately similar to natural stimuli and responses.

L, low ecological validity, occurs when neither the research setting nor the stimuli nor the responses are similar to those of the system under investigation. An example would be an experiment in which a child is brought to a university laboratory, hears a description of a television commercial, explains the intent underlying the broadcast of the commercial, and chooses a food from several pictures of food. In this case neither the setting, nor the stimuli, nor the response demands would be characteristic of the behavioral system under investigation.

Mini-Abstract

Provide a brief description of the main elements of the study. If the research was conducted outside the United States, indicate where it was conducted.

Lead Reviewer

Enter the last name of the person designated as lead reviewer.

Other Comments: Lead Reviewer

The lead reviewer adds any comments about unusual results or features of the research, questions he or she had in reviewing the research or filling in the Evidence Table, opinions about the overall quality of the work, arguments for why the apparently positive causal relationship should be discounted, and other information that seems pertinent. Also be sure to include the rationales for the Measure Quality, Causality Evidence, and Ecological Validity ratings.

Second Reviewer

Enter the last name of the person designated as the second reviewer.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Other Comments: Second Reviewer

The second reviewer adds any comments about unusual results or features of the research, questions he or she had in reviewing the research or filling in the Evidence Table, opinions about the overall quality of the work, arguments for why the apparently positive causal relationship should be discounted, and other information that seems pertinent. Also be sure to include the rationales for the Measure Quality, Causality Evidence, and Ecological Validity ratings.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

F-2 Summary Evidence Table

Relationship

Precursors

Relationship between marketing and precursors to diet

Diet

Relationship between marketing and diet

Health

Relationship between marketing and diet-related health

(TV)

Exposure to advertising on television measured by television viewing

Significance

Y

Study reported one or more statistically significant relationships between marketing and an outcome variable at p less than or equal to 0.05

N

Study reported no statistically significant relationship between marketing and an outcome variable

Research Method

CS

Cross-sectional

Exp

Randomized trial

Exp-N

Natural experiment

L-Pnl

Longitudinal—Panel

L-Trnd

Longitudinal—Trend

Cause Variable Category

 

The general category that the independent variable was measuring, e.g., “TV ads—Experiment,” “TV ads—Viewing only,” and “Multimedia campaign”

Effect Variable Category

 

The general category that the dependent variable was measuring, e.g., “Preferences,” “Short-term consumption,” and “Adiposity”

Sample Age

IT

Infants and toddlers under 2 years of age

YC

Younger children ages 2–5 years

OC

Older children ages 6–11 years

T

Teens ages 12–18 years

Measure Quality/

H

High

Causality Evidence/

M

Medium

Ecological Validity

L

Low

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Andersen et al.

1998

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Anderson et al.

2001

Health (TV)

N

L-Pnl

Anderson et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Armstrong et al.

1998

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Auty, Lewis

2004

Diet

Y

Exp

Bao, Shao

2002

Precursors

Y

Exp

Bao, Shao

2002

Precursors

Y

L-Trnd

Barry, Gunst

1982

Precursors

N

Exp

Berkey et al.

2000

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Berkey et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Bogaert et al.

2003

Health (TV)

N

L-Pnl

Bolton

1983

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Borzekowski, Poussaint

1998

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Borzekowski, Poussaint

1998

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Borzekowski, Robinson

2001

Precursors

Y

Exp

Boynton-Jarrett et al.

2003

Diet (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Brody et al.

1981

Precursors

Y

Exp

Burke et al.

2005

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Cantor

1981

Diet

Y

Exp

Carruth et al.

1991

Diet (TV)

N

CS

Christenson

1982

Precursors

Y

Exp

Clancy-Hepburn et al.

1974

Precursors (TV)

N

CS

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

4,063

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

570

YCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

570

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

588

OC

L

L

H

Product placement in film

Short-term consumption

105

OC

H

H

M

Radio ads

Preferences

180

T

L

M

L

Multimedia campaign

Preferences

2,276

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

172

YCOC

L

M

L

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

10,769

OCT

L

M

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

10,896

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

41

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual Diet

262

YCOC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

128

YC

L

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual Diet

128

YC

L

L

M

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

39

YC

H

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual Diet

548

OC

L

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Requests

57

YC

M

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

1,430

OC

L

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

37

YCOC

H

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

887

T

M

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences and other

90

OC

M

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Preferences

105

OC

L

L

H

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Clarke

1984

Precursors

N

Exp

Coon et al.

2001

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Crespo et al.

2001

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Crespo et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Crooks

2000

Health (TV)

N

CS

Dawson et al.

1988

Precursors

N

Exp

Deheeger et al.

1997

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Dennison et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Dennison et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Dietz, Gortmaker

1985

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Dietz, Gortmaker

1985

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Donkin et al.

1993

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Donkin et al.

1993

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Donohue

1975

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Dowda et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

CS

duRant et al.

1994

Health (TV)

N

CS

duRant et al.

1996

Health (TV)

N

CS

Dwyer et al.

1998

Health (TV)

N

CS

Eisenmann et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Faber et al.

1984

Precursors

Y

Exp

Fontvieille et al.

1993

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

80

YC

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual Diet

91

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual Diet

4,069

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

4,069

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

54

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

80

OC

M

H

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

86

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,761

YC

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

1,182

YC

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

13,636

OCT

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,153

OCT

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

254

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

254

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

162

YC

L

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,791

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Observed in natural setting

Adiposity

110

YC

M

L

H

TV ads—Observed in natural setting

Adiposity

138

YCOC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

3,214

OC

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

15,143

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs and preferences

162

YCOCT

M

M

L

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

85

OC

L

L

L

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Francis et al.

2003

Diet (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Francis et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

French et al.

2001a

Diet

Y

Exp-N

French et al.

2001b

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Galst

1980

Diet

Y

Exp

Galst, White

1976

Precursors

Y

CS

Giammattei et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Goldberg

1990

Diet (TV)

Y

Exp-N

Goldberg et al.

1978

Precursors

Y

Exp

Gordon-Larsen et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Gorn, Florsheim

1985

Precursors

N

Exp

Gorn, Florsheim

1985

Precursors

Y

Exp

Gorn, Goldberg

1980

Diet

N

Exp

Gorn, Goldberg

1980

Precursors

Y

Exp

Gorn, Goldberg

1982

Diet

Y

Exp

Gortmaker et al.

1996

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Gracey et al.

1996

Health (TV)

N

CS

Graf et al.

2004

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Gray, Smith

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Greenberg, Brand

1993

Precursors

Y

Exp-N

Greenberg, Brand

1993

Diet

N

Exp-N

Grund et al.

2000

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

173

YCOC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

173

YCOC

M

M

H

Price and promotion

Usual diet

55

T

H

H

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

4,344

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

65

YC

H

H

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

41

YC

H

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

319

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

475

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

81

YCOC

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

12,759

OCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

70

OC

M

M

M

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs and preferences

70

OC

M

M

M

TV ads—Experiment

Short-perm consumption

151

OC

H

H

M

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs and preferences

151

OC

H

H

M

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

288

OC

H

H

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

746

OCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

391

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

207

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

155

YCOCT

M

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

1,647

T

M

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Usual diet

1,647

T

M

H

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

88

YCOC

M

L

H

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Guillaume et al.

1997

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Halford et al.

2004

Diet

Y

Exp

Harrison

2005

Precursors

Y

L-Pnl

Hernandez et al.

1999

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Heslop, Ryans

1980

Precursors

N

Exp

Hitchings, Moynihan

1998

Diet

Y

CS

Horn et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Horn et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Hoy et al.

1986

Precursors

Y

Exp

Isler et al.

1987

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Janz et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Jeffrey et al.

1982

Diet

Y

Exp

Jeffrey et al.

1982

Diet

Y

Exp

Kant, Graubard

2003

Diet (TV)

N

CS

Katzmarzyk et al.

1998

Health (TV)

N

CS

Kaur et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Kaur et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Klein-Platat et al.

2005

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Krassas et al.

2001

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Kunkel

1988

Precursors

Y

Exp

Levin et al.

2004

Health (TV)

N

CS

Lewis, Hill

1998

Precursors

Y

Exp

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity and other

1,028

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

42

OC

H

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Beliefs

134

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

461

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

280

YCOC

M

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

44

OC

M

L

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

103

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

103

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

78

YC

M

M

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

250

YCOC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

464

YCOC

M

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

47

YC

H

H

M

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

96

YCOC

H

H

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

4,137

OCT

L

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

784

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,223

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,223

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

2,714

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

2,468

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs, preferences, and requests

152

YCOC

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

148

YC

M

L

L

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

35

OC

M

H

L

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Lin et al.

2004

Health (TV)

N

CS

Locard et al.

1992

Health (TV)

N

CS

Macklin

1990

Precursors

N

Exp

Macklin

1994

Precursors

Y

Exp

Maffeis et al.

1998

Health (TV)

N

L-Pnl

Maffeis et al.

1998

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Manios et al.

2004

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Matheson et al.

2004

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

McMurray et al.

2000

Health (TV)

N

CS

Miller, Busch

1979

Precursors

Y

Exp

Morton

1990

Precursors

Y

CS

Muller et al.

1999

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Muller et al.

1999

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Norton et al.

2000

Precursors

Y

CS

Obarzanek et al.

1994

Health (TV)

Y

CS

O’Loughlin et al.

2000

Health (TV)

N

L-Pnl

Palmer, McDowell

1981

Precursors

Y

CS

Pate, Ross

1987

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Peterson et al.

1984

Precursors

Y

Exp

Peterson et al.

1984

Diet

N

Exp

Pine, Nash

2003

Precursors

Y

CS

Proctor et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

1,651

OCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

1,020

YC

L

L

H

Print ads

Beliefs, preferences, and requests

36

YC

M

M

L

TV ads—Experiment

Requests

40

YCOC

L

M

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

112

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

112

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

198

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

214

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

2,389

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

363

YCOC

M

H

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

185

T

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

1,497

YCOC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

1,497

YCOC

M

L

H

Price and promotion

Preferences

35

OCT

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

2,379

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,634

OC

L

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Beliefs

64

YC

M

M

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,372

OC

M

L

M

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs and preferences

106

OC

M

M

M

TV ads—Experiment

Short-term consumption

106

OC

H

M

M

TV ads—Campaign

Preferences

75

YC

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

106

YCOC

M

M

H

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Reid et al.

1980

Precursors (TV)

N

CS

Reilly et al.

2005

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Resnik, Stern

1977

Precursors

Y

Exp

Ritchey, Olson

1983

Precursors (TV)

N

CS

Ritchey, Olson

1983

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Robinson

1999

Diet (TV)

N

Exp

Robinson

1999

Health (TV)

Y

Exp

Robinson et al.

1993

Health (TV)

N

CS

Robinson et al.

1993

Health (TV)

N

L-Pnl

Robinson, Killen

1995

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Robinson, Killen

1995

Health (TV)

N

CS

Ross et al.

1981

Precursors

N

Exp

Ross et al.

1981

Precursors

Y

Exp

Shannon et al.

1991

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Shannon et al.

1991

Health (TV)

N

CS

Sherwood et al.

2003

Health (TV)

N

CS

Signorielli, Lears

1992

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Signorielli, Lears

1992

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Signorielli, Staples

1997

Precursors (TV)

Y

CS

Stettler et al.

2004

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Stoneman, Brody

1981

Precursors

Y

Exp

Stoneman, Brody

1982

Precursors

Y

Exp

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Beliefs

138

OC

L

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

5,493

YCOC

L

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

45

OC

H

H

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Preferences

122

YC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

122

YC

L

M

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

192

OC

M

H

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

192

OC

M

H

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

671

T

L

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

279

T

L

M

M

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Usual diet

1,912

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

1,912

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs

100

YCOC

L

M

M

TV ads—Experiment

Beliefs

100

YCOC

L

M

L

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

489

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

773

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

96

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Beliefs

209

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

209

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Beliefs and preferences

427

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

872

OC

M

M

H

TV ads—Experiment

Preferences

124

OC

M

H

L

TV ads—Experiment

Requests

36

YC

H

H

M

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Reference

Relationship

Significance

Research Method

Author(s)

Year

Storey et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Storey et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Sugimori et al.

2004

Health (TV)

Y

L-Pnl

Tanasescu et al.

2000

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Taras et al.

1989

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Taras et al.

2000

Diet

Y

CS

Taras et al.

2000

Precursors

Y

CS

Toyran et al.

2002

Precursors

Y

CS

Toyran et al.

2002

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Tremblay, Willms

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Trost et al.

2001

Health (TV)

N

CS

Tucker

1986

Health (TV)

N

CS

Utter et al.

2003

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Utter et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Vandewater et al.

2004

Health (TV)

N

CS

Wake et al.

2003

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Waller et al.

2003

Health (TV)

N

CS

Wolf et al.

1993

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Wong et al.

1992

Health (TV)

Y

CS

Woodward et al.

1997

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Yavas, Abdul-Gader

1993

Precursors

Y

CS

Zive et al.

1998

Diet (TV)

Y

CS

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Cause Variable Category

Effect Variable Category

Sample

Measure Quality

Causality Evidence

Ecological Validity

Size

Age

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

3,473

OCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

8,772

OCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

8,170

YCOC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

53

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

66

YCOC

L

L

H

TV ads—Campaign

Usual diet

237

YC

M

L

H

TV ads—Campaign

Requests

237

YC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

886

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

886

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

7,216

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

187

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

379

T

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Usual diet

4,480

T

M

M

M

TV ads—Viewing + other media

Adiposity

4,480

T

M

L

M

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,831

ITYCOC

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

2,862

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

880

OC

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Adiposity

552

OCT

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Other

1,081

YCOCT

M

M

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

2,082

T

L

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Requests

217

OC

M

L

H

TV ads—Viewing only

Usual diet

351

YC

M

L

H

Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Hoy MG, Young CE, Mowen JC. 1986. Animated host-selling advertisements: Their impact on young children’s recognition, attitudes, and behavior. J Pub Policy Marketing 5: 171–184.


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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Miller JH, Busch P. 1979. Host selling vs. premium TV commercials: An experimental evaluation of their influence on children. J Market Res 16(3):323–332.

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix F Chapter 5 Appendix." Institute of Medicine. 2006. Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity?. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11514.
×

Signorielli N, Lears M. 1992. Television and children’s conceptions of nutrition: Unhealthy messages. Health Commun 4(4):245–257.

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Creating an environment in which children in the United States grow up healthy should be a high priority for the nation. Yet the prevailing pattern of food and beverage marketing to children in America represents, at best, a missed opportunity, and at worst, a direct threat to the health prospects of the next generation. Children’s dietary and related health patterns are shaped by the interplay of many factors—their biologic affinities, their culture and values, their economic status, their physical and social environments, and their commercial media environments—all of which, apart from their genetic predispositions, have undergone significant transformations during the past three decades. Among these environments, none have more rapidly assumed central socializing roles among children and youth than the media. With the growth in the variety and the penetration of the media have come a parallel growth with their use for marketing, including the marketing of food and beverage products. What impact has food and beverage marketing had on the dietary patterns and health status of American children? The answer to this question has the potential to shape a generation and is the focus of Food Marketing to Children and Youth. This book will be of interest to parents, federal and state government agencies, educators and schools, health care professionals, industry companies, industry trade groups, media, and those involved in community and consumer advocacy.

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