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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Index

A

Academic/school problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374

Access to care, 9, 19, 34, 138, 673, 676-678

Acidosis, 200, 330, 331

Actin, 175, 182, 291

Adenyl cyclase, 291

Adenylate cyclase, 173

Administration for Children and Families, 447

Adolescents, 44, 120, 125-126, 265, 349, 364, 377, 381, 382, 448, 449, 463, 628-629, 678, 679, 681-682

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 172, 173, 179, 188

Advisory Committee on Infant Mortality, 452, 464

African Americans

alcohol use, 27

birth certificate data, 81

birth weights, 25, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138, 139, 140, 154, 209

BMI (maternal), 151, 152

depression, 109

douching practices, 100

drug abuse, 27

educational attainment, 114, 130

environmental toxicant exposure, 251

estimates of gestational age in, 67-68

fetal maturation rate, 78

foreign-born vs. U.S.-born, 26, 129

growth outcomes, 382

income and net worth, 146

infant mortality rates, 50-51, 77, 112, 130, 315-316, 630

infections, 27, 100, 132

infertility, 158

interpregnancy interval, 153, 154

low-income, 106-107, 112, 113, 120-121, 125

marital status–related risks, 125, 127, 128

maternal age–related risks, 126, 128

neighborhood environment, 137, 138-139, 140, 142, 143

personal resources, 119

PPROM, 211-212

prenatal care, 64, 131

prepregnancy health, 125

rates of preterm birth, 5, 12, 26, 48-49, 76, 112, 130, 133, 222, 250, 315, 614, 616, 620-621, 678, 679

risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629

stressors, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 132, 142

survival advantage of preterm infants, 77, 315, 630

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

tobacco use, 27, 92, 131

unintended pregnancy, 120-121

Age.

See also Maternal age

perinatal terminology, 61

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 17, 158, 447

Agent Orange, 243, 250

Agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252

Air pollution exposures

carbon monoxide, 234, 236

exposure assessment, 232-233

gestation stage and, 235-236

location of residence and, 138, 232, 235, 250

nitrous oxides, 234-235, 236

ozone, 234, 235, 236-237

particulates, 22-23, 231, 234, 235-236, 237, 252

PCBs, 242

sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252

Alabama, 450, 651, 693

Alan Guttmacher Institute, 690

Albuterol, 291

Alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142, 371

Aldrin, 239

Alkaline phosphatase, 270, 272

α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA), 199

α-Fetoprotein, 270, 272

Altitude, and birth weight, 70

Aluminum sulfate, 249

American Academy of Pediatrics, 35, 57, 320-321, 647, 649, 655, 660, 663, 666, 667-668

American Association of Gynecology and Obstetrics Foundation, 437

American Board of Obstetric and Gynecology, 437

American Board of Pediatrics, 439

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 18, 33, 64, 258, 278, 292, 448

ethics handbook, 653, 655

sample antepartum record, 302-307

workforce data, 441

American Indians/Alaska Natives

birth weights, 77

educational attainment, 130

marital status, 128

maternal age, 128

preterm birth rates, 5, 49, 128

American Medical Association, 653

American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM), 17, 18, 33, 165-166, 168, 258

Amniocentesis, 66

Amnionitis, 70, 184, 185-186, 191, 195, 200, 220

Ampicillin, 295, 296

Amplitude-integrated EEG, 68, 69

Anemia, 94-95, 163, 266, 327-328

Anencephaly, 671-672

Aneuploidy, 163, 269

Angelman syndrome, 164

Angiotensin II, 179

Animal models

intrauterine infections, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 195-196, 199-200

neonatal sequelae, 196-200, 202, 203, 206

parturition pathways, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254

prenatal stress, 102, 180

PWMD, 196-197, 199-200

relevance to humans, 192, 193

species comparison of reproductive characteristics, 194-195

Antenatal counseling, 646

Antenatal maternal treatments, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318, 651

Antibiotics.

See also individual antibiotics

efficacy for prevention of preterm birth, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280, 296, 727

gestational age and, 278

maternal infection, 132, 151, 186, 196, 276-280

neonatal side effects, 319, 322

for PPROM, 278, 296, 727

preconceptional use, 278-279

for preterm labor, 273, 295-296

Anticonvulsant drugs, 199

Anxiety, 24, 103, 104, 107-108, 111-112, 180, 371

Apnea, 318, 321

Apoptosis, 175, 188, 191, 199, 200, 325

Appendicitis, 279

Arab Americans, 158

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Arachidonic acid, 174, 191, 205, 251, 293

Arginine, 294

Arizona, 679

Aroclor 1254, 251

Arsenic, 248-249, 252

Artificial insemination, 16, 45, 157

Asians/Pacific Islanders

birth weights, 140

educational attainment, 130

marital status, 128

maternal age, 128

neighborhood environment, 140

preterm birth rates, 5, 26, 48, 49-50, 76, 128, 133, 222

Asphyxia, 328, 664

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART).

See also specific procedures

accreditation of embryo laboratories, 165

ASRM practice guidelines, 17, 165-166, 168, 258

birth defects, 163-164

definition, 16, 155

delivery method, 163

estimated date of confinement, 61

ethical issues, 656-658

fetal reduction, 166, 657

incidence of pregnancies, 155-157, 167-168

infant mortality rates, 17, 162, 657

international comparisons, 166-167

live birth trends, 46-47, 157, 164, 165

low birth weights, 46, 162, 657, 679

maternal age and, 16, 45, 46-47, 159, 166, 167

maternal and child health risks, 162-164

multiple gestations, 16-17, 45-47, 135, 154, 157, 159-160, 161, 163-165, 258, 266, 424, 606, 631

number of embryos transferred, 159, 165-168, 258, 656-658

oversight/regulation, 164-165, 258

parturition pathways, 177

preterm birth trends and risks, 16, 17, 37, 45-47, 161, 265, 266-267, 631, 657, 678, 679

procedures, 155-157

reporting of outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157

singletons, 17, 46, 159, 162-163, 168, 266-267, 657

success rate, 166

utilization rate, 156, 157, 159

Association of American Medical Colleges, 438, 442

Association of Pediatric Department Chairs, 437

Asthma, 14, 32, 149

Atherosclerosis, 152

Atosiban, 293, 294, 295

Atrazine, 240

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 14, 32, 348, 370, 371, 374, 463

Australia, 42, 43, 209, 369, 646, 661, 674, 677, 692, 693

Autism, 371, 422

Autoimmune diseases, 82

Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395

B

Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666

Bacterial vaginosis (BV), 27, 100, 102, 110, 132, 135, 151, 185, 186, 217, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 727, 729

Bacteriuria, asymptomatic, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276

Bacteroides, 269

Ballard Score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613

Bangladesh, 248-249

Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357, 392

Bax protein, 191

Bcl2 protein, 191

BEAM Trial, 300

Bechwith-Wiedermann syndrome, 164

Behavioral influences.

See also Nutrition,

maternal;

Physical activity;

Tobacco use

alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142

clustering of, 90-91

cultural context, 142

douching, 99-100, 121, 131

employment-related, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 149, 265

illicit drug use, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 626

infections, 94

interventions, 471-472

methodological issues, 23-24, 90-91, 93

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

racial/ethnic disparities and, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133

sexual activity, 99

socioeconomic disparities, 90, 93, 133, 134-135

stress and, 180-181

Behavioral and socio-emotional outcomes, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396

Belgium, 167, 168, 470, 668, 669

Berendes, H., 605

β-adrenergic receptor agonists, 290-291, 295

β2-adrenergic receptor, 212, 215

β-hexachlorocyclohexane, 239

Beta-mimetic drugs, 291-292, 293, 294

Betamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 334

Biological mechanisms.

See also Parturition process;

Preterm premature rupture of membranes

in environmental toxicant exposures, 251-252

prenatal stress, 101, 110, 143-144, 179-180, 626

proteomic modifications, 219-221

RDS, 66, 202

Biophysical profile, 66

Biotin, 219

Birth certificates, 9, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81, 209

Birth defects, 150-151, 162, 163-164, 263, 315, 415, 422

Birth weight.

See also Low birth weight;

Very low birth weight

categories, 57-59

and costs of medical care, 705, 706-707

depression and, 109

gender differences, 63, 70, 77

geographic differences, 70

and gestational age, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242

and infant mortality, 21, 446

infections and, 186, 278

interpregnancy interval and, 152, 153-154

and length of hospital stay, 407, 408, 710

methodological issues, 56-59, 62, 347, 386

misclassification, 79

neighborhood conditions and, 137-142

neurodevelopmental disabilities by, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 420-421

nutrition and, 95, 96, 134

personal resources and, 119

population differences, 25, 63, 70

prenatal stress and, 104, 180

program eligibility based on, 461

as proxy for maturity, 4, 5, 8, 25, 31, 34, 36, 56-59, 62, 347, 386, 606

racial/ethnic disparities, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209

reporting, 9

smoking and, 90, 217, 283

social support and, 116, 143

socioeconomic disparities, 139-140

unintended pregnancy and, 120, 121

violence and, 110, 138

Blacks. See African Americans

Blood pressure, 102.

See also Hypertension, maternal

Body mass index, 80, 94, 95, 134, 151, 152

Born-Alive Infant Protection Act of 2001, 659-660

Botulinum Toxicum injections, 353

Bradycardia, 321, 327

Brazillian cohort, 239

Breast cancer, 163, 338

Breastfeeding, 338, 343

Bromodichloromethane, 244

Bronchodilators, 319

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), 202, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319-321, 324, 327, 331, 336, 343, 378-379, 390, 707

Budin, Pierre, 57

Building Interdisciplinary Careers in Women’s Health Program, 437

Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 33, 438, 446, 731

C

C-CPEP Trial, 274

C-reactive protein, 270

Cadmium, 248

Caffeine, 321

Calcium

channel blockers, 291, 292-293

mobilization, 171, 174, 175, 182, 251, 293

supplementation, 95

Calgranulins, 220

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

California, 234, 236, 403, 406, 407, 408, 417, 428, 646, 691, 692, 693, 697, 705

Calmodulin, 171, 175, 182

Canada, 26, 42, 43, 133, 233, 234, 240, 365-366, 384, 385, 647-648, 661, 690

Cancer, 163, 243, 338

Candida, 325

CAP gene, 173, 181

Carbon monoxide, 234, 236

CARDIA study, 113

Cardiometabolic disease, 388-389

Cardiovascular development, 326

Cardiovascular disease

adulthood risk, 386, 388, 389

maternal, 149, 150, 152

Cardiovascular function, 101, 114, 321

Career development in clinical research.

See also Training clinical researchers

board certification, 439

faculty vitality, 442-443, 453

liability concerns and, 438-439, 440, 441

mentors, 436, 439, 453

need for change, 7-8, 439-440

ob/gyn physician researchers, 7, 32, 438, 440-446

women, 439-442

Caspase, 191

Catalase, 199

Catecholamines, 110, 179, 205

Cefetamet-pivoxil, 276

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 16, 33, 35, 165, 258, 415, 425, 657, 690

funding for preterm research, 17, 446, 447, 729-730

perinatal data collection, 10, 45, 79, 84

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 447

Central nervous system complications.

See also Cerebral palsy;

Cognitive impairment;

Neurodevelopmental disabilities;

Neurodevelopmental support;

Periventricular white matter disease

delivery method and, 332

diagnosis, 333, 379

germinal matrix injury, 333, 334

IPH, 333, 334, 379

IVH, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 326, 331, 33-334, 336, 366, 379, 385

neuroimaging, 379

neuroprotective medications, 336

treatment, 333-334, 336

Cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379

Cerebral palsy (CP), 14, 32, 196, 199-200, 300, 320, 325, 335-336, 348, 350-353, 371, 372, 374, 378, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425, 675, 707

Cervical

cerclage, 273, 274, 275, 281-282

examination, 12, 268-269

inflammation, 272

injury or abnormality, 189, 266

length, 189, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275, 281-282, 283, 286

ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181

scores, 268

Cesarean delivery, 43-44, 163, 181, 234, 332, 622, 623, 651-652, 653

Charge to committee, 3-4, 33, 52

Child abuse and neglect, 143, 463, 659

Child Abuse Protection and Treatments Act, 659, 665-666

Child Health and Developmental Studies of the San Francisco Bay Area, 238

Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, 670

China, 42, 50, 233, 234, 237, 248

Chlamydia trachomatis, 135, 270

Chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245

3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, 244

Chloroform, 244, 245

Chorioamnionitis, 82, 184, 185-186, 200, 205, 296, 335

Choriocarcinoma, 219

Chromosomal disorders, 69, 80, 162

Chronic lung disease (CLD). See Bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Chronological age, 61

Citrulline, 294

Classifications of preterm birth, 607-608

Clindamycin, 276, 277, 278

Clinical research on preterm birth.

See also Career development in clinical research;

Funding for clinical research and training;

Training clinical researchers

adolescent subjects, 448, 449, 681-682

barriers to, 7, 32, 34, 435-436, 438-439

ethical issues, 447-451, 679-682

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

federal activities, 446-447

informed consent, 448, 449, 680-681

institutional review boards, 448, 449

leadership challenges and needs, 8, 452-454

liability issues, 450-452

minimal risk vs no added risk, 448, 450-451, 680

multidisciplinary approach, 32, 452-453, 473-474

ob/gyn physician researcher workforce, 7, 32, 438-439, 440-446, 453-454

protections for subjects of, 448-451, 680-681

reimbursement for clinical services, 451-452, 453

Clinical Risk Index for Babies, 67

Co-amoxicillin-clavulanic acid treatment, 295, 296

Cocaine use, 24, 93-94, 134, 180, 191, 471, 631.

See also Drug abuse

Cochrane database, 292, 342

Cognitive impairment

academic problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374

attention deficits, 14, 32, 348, 363, 370

auditory processing and discrimination, 369

Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357

birth weight and, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365

cystic PVL and, 335

development quotient, 355, 357

doxapram and, 321

economic costs of, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

executive function disorder, 370

fetal brain sparing and, 71

gestational age at birth and, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374

infections and, 325, 378

IQ scores, 71, 349, 354-363, 370, 371, 394, 425

language disorders, 14, 32, 328, 348, 363, 369-370, 374, 394

learning disabilities, 14, 32, 348, 363, 364-365, 369, 371, 374

memory, 363, 365, 369, 370

mental retardation, 14, 32, 47, 348, 353, 355-356, 374, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

spatial skills, 363, 394

and special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 423-424, 717-719

steroid therapy and, 320

visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394

Cohabitation, 127, 129

Collaborative Perinatal Project, 349

Colombia statistics and studies, 240, 343

Colony stimulating factors, 213

Colorado, 70

Community factors.

See also Neighborhood conditions

ethical issues, 654

methodological issues, 136, 144-146

modeling, 136, 139-140, 144-146

quality index, 145

racial/ethnic disparities, 136, 137, 138-139, 140

research needs, 141

social class disparities, 136, 139-141, 142, 233

stressful, 137, 142, 143-144

Complications. See Neonatal complications of preterm birth

Computerized tomography, 333

Conduct disorders, 371

Conferences on preterm birth, 605

Congenital anomalies, 63, 64, 69, 163, 327, 328, 661, 663, 664, 669, 671-672

Congestive heart failure, 152

Connective tissue disorders, 189

Connexins

CX-26, 181

CX-43, 171, 172, 174, 181

Contraction-associated proteins (CAPs), 171, 173, 174

Contractions. See Preterm labor;

Uterine

Coronary artery disease, 386

Corrected age, 61

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 102, 110, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215, 269, 270

Cortisol, 102, 110, 172, 174, 179, 185, 192, 194, 297, 340

Costs of preterm birth. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;

Societal costs of preterm birth

Croatia, 233

CRYO Trial, 384

Cuban statistics and studies, 42, 49

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Cultural factors.

See also Racial/ethnic disparities

neighborhood characteristics, 142

in risk behaviors, 142

and stress, 26, 36, 111-112, 142

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 171, 173, 174, 291

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate, 171, 294

Cyclooxygenase inhibitors, 293

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 174, 187

Cystine, 199

Cytochrome P450, 216, 243

Cytokines, proinflammatory, 102, 132, 173, 174, 177, 179, 180, 184, 186, 187, 195, 205, 222, 252, 335

Cytomegalovirus, 82, 325, 329

Czech Republic statistics and studies, 233, 234, 235

D

Data collection

cause of death, 82

gene-environment interactions, 227

fetal deaths, 81, 82

perinatal, 9-10, 45, 79, 84

recommendations, 6, 8-10, 73, 84-85, 480-482

vital records, 9, 43, 60, 78, 79-81, 209

Data reporting

ART-related outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157

artifacts of, 78, 635-636

birth weight, 9

infant outcomes, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157

international differences, 43, 636-637

LMP, 80

quality of vital records, 79-81

resuscitation at delivery, 73

standards, 79

vital statistics, 9-10, 60, 78, 79-83

DDT, 231, 237-239, 241, 251, 252

Decidual

hemorrhage, 17, 182-183, 269

membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175

Defensins, 220, 269, 272

Definitions of preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 224, 230, 606-609

Delayed childbearing, 154.

See also Maternal age

Delinquency, 371, 394

Delivery method, 43-44.

See also Cesarean delivery

Denmark, statistics and studies, 42, 96, 103, 104, 112, 155, 371, 385

Depression

maternal, 14, 103, 104, 107, 109, 111-112, 120, 380, 390

premature children, 371

Developmental disabilities. See Neurodevelopmental disabilities

Dexamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 320

DHEA-S, 172, 173-174, 179

Diabetes mellitus

fetal origins hypothesis, 387, 388

maternal, 44, 71, 80, 82, 148, 149, 150, 163, 263, 617, 622, 630-631

Diagnosis

CNS complications, 333, 379

preterm labor, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290;

see also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth

Dichloroacetic acid, 244

Dichlorobromomethane, 244

Dieldrin, 239, 241

Diet. See Nutrition, maternal

Dioxin, 243-244, 250

Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, 202

District of Columbia, 168

Diuretics, 219, 333-334

DNA methylation, 164, 218

Domestic/personal violence, 110, 120, 135, 143

Douching, 99-100, 121, 131

Doxapram, 321

Drug abuse, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 371, 471-472, 626

Dubowitz score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613

Due date, 60-61

Dysmorphic syndrome, 69

E

Ear infections, 14, 370

Early intervention programs, 11, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 469-470, 718-719

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Early and Periodic Screening Diagnosis and Treatment (EPSDT) program, 459

Earned Income Tax Credits, 471

Earthquakes, 106, 111

Eclampsia, 655

Economic costs. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;

Societal costs of preterm birth

Education

costs of preterm birth, 11, 47, 400, 423-424, 460, 706, 717-719

early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469, 472

Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 373

Educational attainment, 114, 130, 390, 622, 628-629

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, 209

Electroencephalography (EEG), 68

Electroretinography, 68

Embryonic chorionic gonadotropin, 187

Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act, 672

Emotional and affective states.

See also Anxiety;

Depression;

Prenatal stress, maternal

intrusive thought, 112

linkages to preterm birth, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111

Employment

occupational exposures to toxins, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250

physical demands of, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471

stress related to, 47, 97, 109-110, 135, 391

Endocrine pathways, 144, 179, 215

Endometrial cancer, 163

Endorphins, 340

Endotoxin, 200

Enterovirus, 82

Environmental Genome Project, 211

Environmental Protection Agency, 33

Environmental toxicants.

See also Air pollution exposures

agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252

animal studies, 251

biological mechanisms, 251-252

chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245

co-exposures, 231

cumulative exposures, 231-232

dioxin, 243-244, 250

environmental tobacco smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321

exposure assessment, 231-232, 237, 244, 253

gene interactions, 226

and gestational age at birth, 237

maternal age and, 246

metals and metalloids, 22, 230, 231, 232, 247-249, 252

occupational exposures, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250

paternal exposures, 240, 243, 249-250

PCBs, 241-243, 251

phthalates, 252, 253

racial/ethnic disparities, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251

research needs, 253-254

residence as exposure proxy, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 250

socioeconomic disparities, 232-233, 240, 250

Epigenetics, 218-219

Epilepsy, 353

Erythromycin, 151, 275, 276, 277, 278, 296

Escherichia coli, 200

Estonia, 668

Estrogen receptor-alpha, 238

Estrogens, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215

Ethical issues

access to perinatal care, 673, 676-678

adolescents, 448, 449, 678, 681-682

Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666

brain death in pregnant women with periviable fetuses, 654-655

in decision making, 287, 645-652, 655

delivery room resuscitation, 658-659, 674-675

distributive justice of care, 678-679

end-of-life and LSMT practices, 645-652, 658-672

financial costs, 673-675

infertility treatments, 656-658

informed consent, 448, 449, 649-652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 659, 663, 668, 681

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656

legal precedents, 649-651, 658-659

maternal-fetal conflicts, 287, 652-658

maternal illness, 655

paternal rights, 448, 680-681

personhood, 653, 659-660

professional guidelines, 655-656, 662, 667-668

racism or ethnic prejudice, 678

in research, 447-448, 679-682

social and community context, 654

societal costs of preterm birth, 673-679

termination of pregnancy, 448, 681

viability threshold, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681

Etiologies of preterm birth.

See also Behavioral influences;

Community factors;

Gene-environment interactions;

Genetic susceptibility;

Medical and pregnancy conditions;

Psychosocial factors

animal models, 22

biological pathways, 21, 22, 37, 89, 143-144

environmental pollutants and, 22-23, 37

life course perspective, 37

modeling complex interactions, 25-26, 37, 141-142, 143, 144-147, 256-257, 272, 273

racial/ethnic disparities, 37, 77

research recommendations, 6, 21-23, 122-123, 255-256, 488-489

EURONIC project, 661, 668-669

European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology, 166

Expression proteomics, 220

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, 198

Extremely low birth weight, 59, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 648, 650, 651, 658-662

Eye. See Ophthalmic impairment;

Visual processing and perceptual deficits

F

Factor V, 82, 212

Family

costs of preterm birth, 3, 47, 371, 391, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712

early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469

history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209

impacts of premature infants on, 14, 47, 389-393

parental leave policies, 638

participation in medical decision making, 72, 287, 645-652, 655, 659, 660, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668

public policies affecting, 471

Faroe Islands, 96

Fas-caspase apoptosis pathway, 191

Fatty acids, long-chain, 24, 94, 96-97

Feeding intolerance, 322, 337

Fenoterol, 291

Fentanyl, 340

Ferritin, 270

Fertility Clinic Success Rate and Certification Act of 1992, 165

Fetal

adrenal androgen, 172, 185

brain sparing, 69, 71

congenital abnormalities, 64, 163, 327, 328

cortisol, 172, 185

death, 73, 74, 79, 81, 82, 152, 162, 186, 209, 279

developmental milestones, 317-318, 322, 326, 327, 328, 331-332

effects of tocolytics, 293

fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286

glucocorticoid effects, 297

growth, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;

see also Intrauterine growth restriction

HPA axis, 171-172, 179, 185, 188, 269

immune interactions with maternal system, 150, 324

intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656

lung development, 66, 70-71, 201-202, 317-318

membrane activation, 175

movement, 332

neurological development, 298, 331-332, 338-339

origins of adult disease, 386-389

red cell alloimmunization, 150

stress, 287

twin-to-twin transfusion sequence, 150

Fetomaternal hemorrhage, 82, 327

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Fibronectins, 175, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286

Filipino women, 49-50

Finland, 26, 42, 129, 133, 693, 697

First And Second Trimester Evaluation of Risk trial, 162

Fish and fish oil, 96-97, 242

Flame retardants, 252

Florida, 450, 465, 697

Fluconazole, 325

Fluorescent polarization, 66

Folate, 24, 95, 219

Food and Drug Administration, 291, 447, 682

Foster care, 28

France, 42, 470, 605, 648, 668

Free radicals, 198-199, 204, 205, 333, 335

Functional Genomics and Proteomic Markers of Preterm Delivery and Their Variation by Race project, 729

Functional maturity, 68-69

Functional proteomics, 220

Funding for clinical research and training

Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 438, 446, 731

CDC, 17, 446, 447, 729-730

clinical revenues and, 451-452, 453

March of Dimes, 20, 33, 446, 730

NICHD, 437, 447, 725, 726, 727

NIH, 227, 436, 437, 438, 446, 447, 452, 453-454, 725-729

by professional associations, 437

recommendations, 8, 32, 255

by subject area, 725-731

Fungal infections, 325

G

G proteins, 173, 182

Gamete intrafallopial transfer (GIFT), 155, 156, 162.

See also Assisted reproductive technologies

Gamma-interferon (IFN-γ), 132, 213, 214, 222

Gap junctions, 171, 173, 174, 175, 177, 181, 293

Gardnerella vaginalis, 269

Gastroesophageal reflux, 321, 323-324

Gelatinase B, 175

Gender differences

behavioral outcomes, 371

birth weight, 63, 70, 77

growth outcomes, 382

infant mortality rate, 77

pulmonary morbidity, 77

Gene-environment interactions

epigenetic approaches, 218-219

goals of studies, 211, 216-217

infection/inflammation, 187, 211, 213-214, 217

methodological issues, 223-228

and parturition, 177, 187

racial/ethnic disparities and, 132-133, 223

smoking, 217

toxic agents, 226

General Health Questionnaire, 107

Genetic susceptibility

analytical challenges, 224-228

candidate genes, 210, 212-216, 225

data management and integration, 227

disease-associated, 222-223

evidence of, 22, 209-216

family history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209

gene-gene interactions, 224

genetic association studies, 209-211, 226

haplotype analysis, 224

inflammation pathway, 212, 213-214

international comparisons, 209

maternal history of preterm labor/birth, 107, 149, 209

maternal vs. fetal genes, 226

microarray analysis, 216, 219

phenotype definition, 224

population admixture, 223, 225-226

positional cloning, 210

PPROM, 211-212, 223

and racial/ethnic disparities, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223

reporting and replication of results, 228

sample size and power, 227

single-gene candidates, 209, 211-212

twin studies, 209

uteroplacental pathway, 214-215

whole-genome scanning, 210

Genital tract infections. See Infection and inflammation, maternal

Geographic differences.

See also International comparisons;

individual states and countries

comparisons, 636-638

infant mortality rate, 627, 631, 634, 638

malpractice insurance, 450

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

in preterm birth, 40-41, 617, 618

racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639

Geographic information systems, 144

Geonomic and Proteomic Network for Premature Birth Research, 221

Georgia, 41, 316-317, 677

Germany, 42

Gestational age

fetal growth curves by, 58, 59, 63, 69-70

measurement, 9, 10, 38, 43, 59-65, 67-68, 70, 72, 78, 80, 83, 337, 609-614;

see also Measurement of maturity and stress effects, 104

Gestational age at birth.

See also Large for gestational age;

Small for gestational age

antibiotic therapy and, 278

ART and, 61

and birth defect–related preterm birth, 150

and birth weight, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242

categories, 58-59, 75, 79, 608

and cesarean delivery, 43-44

and cognitive impairment, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374

and complications of preterm birth, 3, 13-14, 76, 201-202, 314, 349

data collection, 9-10, 79

defining preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 606-609

environmental exposures, 237

interpregnancy interval, 153

and intrauterine infections, 184

and length of hospital stay, 407, 408

and lung development, 76, 201-202, 318, 319, 336

and management of care, 74, 76

maternal hypertension and, 617, 622

and medical costs, 401, 410-414, 428, 673, 674, 689, 694-695, 698-700, 704-705, 706-707, 711

misclassification, 79, 80

and mortality, 3, 13, 31, 40, 72-74, 79, 287, 288, 314-315, 406, 412, 627, 630, 632-635

multiple gestations and, 75, 161-162, 622

and neurodevelopmental disabilities, 14, 349, 350-351, 352, 353, 366, 367, 372, 416, 419

and ophthalmic impairment, 366

and outcomes, 347-348

as proxy for prematurity, 56-57, 59-65, 337, 609-614

serum eicosapentanoic acid levels and, 96

tobacco use and, 622

trends, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623

and survival, 32, 74, 288, 289, 290

use of data, 79, 609-610

viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681

Glaucoma, 331, 368

Glucocorticoids, 172, 179-180, 203, 287, 297

Glucose metabolism, 99, 386, 387

Glutamate, 199, 212, 335

Glutamic acid, 212

Glutathione, 199

Glutathione peroxidase, 199

Glycoprotein, 271

Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), 270, 272

Greece, 153

Growth

fetal, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;

see also Intrauterine growth restriction

premature infants, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382

Gsα regulatory proteins, 173

Guatemala, 42

H

Haloacetic acids, 244

Hammersmith hospital, 663

Haplotypes, 210

Harris, Lisa, 654

Hawaiian women, 49-50

Health insurance

ART coverage, 158, 165, 167

burden on private payers, 705-706

interconception care, 466

managed care reimbursement policies, 467

Medicaid and Medicare, 19, 20, 28, 404, 406, 417, 456-460, 462-463, 464-465, 466

reimbursement for clinical services in research, 451-452

SCHIP, 19, 457, 458, 465

and utilization of services, 638

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Health Resources and Services Administration, 33, 447

Health Status Classification System for Preschool Children 383-384

Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project, 417

Hearing impairment, 14, 47, 328-329, 348, 367, 369-370, 371, 372, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

Hearing screening for newborns, 328-329, 370

HEDIS (Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set), 18-19, 467

HELLP syndrome, 655

Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor, 187

Heptachlor, 239, 241

Heterogeneity of preterm population, 55, 68-76

fetal maturation, 70-71

IUGR, 69-71

late-term or near-term infants, 75-76

perinatal mortality at limit of viability, 72-74

small for gestational age, 69-70

Hexachlorobenzene, 239, 241

Hexoprenaline, 291

High blood pressure, 163, 330.

See also Hypertension, maternal

High-risk pregnancy, 97, 108, 117

Hispanics/Latinos

birth certificate data, 81

birth weights, 77, 679

BMI (maternal), 151

educational attainment, 130

environmental exposures, 240

infant mortality rate, 51

infertility, 158

inter- and intra-group variations, 129

interpregnancy interval, 153

marital status, 128

maternal age, 128

neighborhood conditions, 140, 143

prenatal care, 64

rates of preterm birth, 5, 26, 49, 76, 105, 128, 129, 315, 679

risk of preterm birth, 151

social supports, 143

stress, 105, 108, 112

Histone deacetylases, 218

History of preterm labor or birth, 12, 22, 107, 149, 152, 209, 226, 265, 266, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278-279

Homelessness, 105, 106

Hopkins Symptom Checklist, 107

Human Genome Epidemiology workshop, 228

Human immunodeficiency virus, 325

Human Proteomics Organization, 221

Hungary, 668

Hurricane Katrina, 111

Hydatiform moles, 219

Hydrocephalus, 334, 353, 379

Hydrocortisone, 320, 327, 336

Hydrogen peroxide, 199, 204

17-Hydroxylase, 173

Hyperbilirubinemia, 328

Hyperglycemia, 389

Hyperoxia, 203, 329

Hypertension, maternal

chronic, 70, 71, 148, 149, 150

gestational, 82, 102, 149

and gestational age at birth, 617, 622

and indicated preterm birth, 149, 630-631

and IUGR, 70, 71

maternal age and, 44

Hypertension, neonatal, 333

Hyperthyroidism, 149

Hypocarbia, 198

Hypoglycemia, 76, 200, 336

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome, 198

Hypotension, 198, 200, 293, 299, 323, 326, 327, 333

Hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA), 101, 111, 170, 171-172, 177, 179, 180, 185, 188, 269

Hypoxia, 203, 329

Hypoxia-ischemia, 198-199, 333

I

Ibuprofen, 293, 326

Illinois, 693

Immigrants, 458

Immune and inflammatory processes.

See also Infection and inflammation, maternal

environmental toxicants and, 251, 252

gene-environment interactions, 187

genetic factors, 212, 213-214

mechanical ventilation and, 205

stress and, 101, 110, 144, 179-180

Immunomodulators, 22, 196

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Implantation, 187-188, 220

Imprisonment, 105

In vitro fertilization (IVF), 16, 17, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167.

See also Assisted reproductive technologies

India, 42, 239, 388

Indian Health Service, 447

Indicated preterm birth

alcohol use and, 93

defined, 36, 149

fetal conditions and, 150

history of, 149

hypertension and, 90, 149

maternal age and, 45

racial/ethnic disparities, 77-78

rates, 608

risk factors, 149, 150, 262, 609

Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act, 395 n.1, 460

Indomethacin, 293, 295, 326, 334, 336

Induction of labor, 43

Infant Health and Development Program, 393-394

Infant mortality rate.

See also Neonatal mortality rates;

Perinatal mortality rates

ART and, 17, 162

birth defects and, 150, 315

birth weight and, 21, 446

data collection, 79

early intervention and, 82, 202

fungal infections, 325

gender differences, 77

geographic variations, 627, 631, 634, 638

gestational age at birth and, 3, 13, 31, 40, 72-74, 79, 287, 314-315, 406, 412, 627, 630, 632-635

intranational and international comparisons, 315-316

leading causes, 315

neuroprotective substances and, 336

prenatal care and, 465

racial/ethnic disparities, 76, 77, 78, 112, 113, 130, 315-316, 630, 638-639

regionalization and NICU access and, 21, 315, 468

smoking and, 90

trends, 31, 39-40, 77, 315, 351, 604, 605, 627, 630, 632-655

unintended pregnancy and, 120

Infant Toddler Quality of Life Questionnaire, 383

Infection and inflammation, maternal.

See also individual agents and diseases

animal models, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 195-196, 199-200

antibiotic treatment, 132, 151, 186, 196, 276-280, 625

biomarkers of preterm birth risk, 269, 271

and birth weight, 186, 278

endometrial, 185, 188

and fetal death, 186

genetic factors, 187, 211, 213-214, 217, 220

group B streptococcus, 185, 191, 263, 276

immunomodulators, 196

and implantation errors, 188

intracervical inflammation, 282

intrauterine, 22, 82, 181, 184-186, 189, 191, 195-196, 199-200, 625-626

lifestyle factors and, 94

lower genital tract, 185-186, 187;

see also Bacterial vaginosis

and neonatal lung injury, 203, 205, 319, 325, 326, 336

neurodevelopmental effects, 325, 333, 378

nosocomial, 343

nutrition and, 95

and parturition process, 21, 22, 36, 135, 176, 179-180, 184-187, 195-196, 199-200, 213-214, 251, 252, 265, 325

periodontal, 110, 184, 186, 187, 265, 279-280

and PPROM, 189, 190-191

and preeclampsia, 186

and preterm labor, 211, 295

prevalence, 184

and PWMD, 199-200, 317, 326, 335

racial/ethnic disparities and, 26, 36, 50-51, 100, 130, 132, 133, 278

sexual activity and, 99

sexually transmitted, 27, 110, 132, 133, 135, 325

socioeconomic disparities, 26-27, 135

systemic, 186, 187, 279

in underweight women, 151

Infertility and subfecundity

causes, 158

defined, 154

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

endometrial cancer and, 163

racial/ethnic disparities in, 158

and risk of preterm birth, 16, 154, 163

Infertility treatments.

See also Assisted reproductive technologies

data collection, 10, 157

delay in seeking, 158

economic barriers, 158, 168

insurance coverage, 158, 165, 167, 168

live births, 158

maternal age and, 154

and multiple gestations, 154, 159-168

racial/ethnic disparities in, 158

and risk of preterm birth, 155

socioeconomic disparities, 158

and spontaneous abortions, 158

utilization rates, 154

Informed consent, 448, 449, 649-652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 659, 663, 668, 681

Institute of Medicine, Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research, and Medicine, 32

Insulin growth factor binding protein-1, 220

Interagency Coordinating Council on Low Birth Weight and Preterm Birth, 446

Interleukin (IL)

IL-1, 174, 179, 184, 187-188, 191, 200, 213, 222

IL-1α, 188, 212, 213, 222

IL-1β, 185, 211, 212, 213

IL-2, 212, 213, 222

IL-6, 132, 179, 185, 200, 211, 212, 213, 222, 270, 271

IL-8, 174, 175, 181, 183, 185, 213, 271, 282

IL-10, 213, 222

Intermountain Healthcare (IHC) Health Plans cohort, 404-410, 426

International comparisons

ART-related multiple gestations, 166-167

data reporting, 43, 637-638

genetic susceptibility, 209

infant mortality rate, 315-316

interpregnancy interval, 153

life-sustaining medical treatment, 646, 647, 648, 661, 668-670, 673

low birth weight, 637

preterm birth rates, 26, 42-43

International HapMap Project, 208

Interpregnancy interval, 152-154, 466

Interstitial collagenase, 175

Interventions for premature infants. See Neonatal lung disease/injury;

Neurodevelopmental support;

Post-NICU discharge interventions

for cerebral palsy, 353

early intervention programs, 11, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 469-470, 718-719

economic costs, 11, 399, 400, 402, 422-423

educational, 393-395

effectiveness, 15, 353, 380, 393-396, 606, 690

intrauterine, 448, 655-656

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), 155, 156, 160, 164.

See also Assisted reproductive technologies

Intraparenchyal hemorrhage (IPH), 333, 334, 379

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), 45, 163, 606

causes, 63, 69, 70, 148

community environment and, 138

and fetal death, 82

maternal illness and, 148, 150

and maturation rate, 70-71, 80, 217

multiple gestations and, 63

and preterm birth, 262

smoking and, 217

socioeconomic disparities and, 60

stress and, 104, 107, 111, 138

unintended pregnancy and, 120

Intrauterine insemination, 16, 45, 157, 160

Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), neonatal, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 326, 331, 333-334, 336, 366, 379, 385

IQ scores, 71, 349, 354-363, 370, 371, 394, 425

Ireland, 42

Iron deficiency anemia, 94-95

Iron supplementation, 24, 94, 328

Israel, 239

Italy, 126, 243, 668

J

Japan, 42, 60

Jaundice, 76

Juvenile justice system, 28

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

K

Kaiser Permanente Medical Care System, 406, 407

Kessel, H., 605

Kopelman, Loretta, 649, 666

Krieger’s measures of racism, 113

L

Labor. See Parturition process;

Preterm labor

Lamellar body count, 66

Language disorders, 14, 32, 328, 348, 363, 369-370, 374, 394

Large for gestational age, 9, 58

Last menstrual period (LMP) for pregnancy dating, 60-62, 80

Lead exposure, 22, 141, 230, 231, 232, 247-248, 249, 252

Leapfrog Group, 468

Learning disabilities, 14, 32, 348, 363, 364-365, 369, 371, 374

Lecithin, 202

Lecithin/sphingomyelin (L/S) ratio, 66, 70

Leiomyomas, 158

Leukemia-inhibiting factor, 187

Liability issues, 34, 285, 438-439

Life-sustaining medical treatment.

See also Mechanical ventilation;

Neonatal intensive care units

accuracy of physician prognoses, 651-652, 662

attitudes of neonatologists, 666, 668

Baby Doe regulations, 659, 663, 665-666, 668

“best interests” standard, 645, 646, 648-649, 658, 666, 667, 669

counseling for parents, 646, 651, 662

delivery-room resuscitation, 72, 73, 74, 82, 647, 649, 650-651, 658-659, 660-662, 673-675

EURONIC project, 661, 668-669

euthanasia, 668, 669, 670

futility-of-care concept, 664, 665-666, 671-672

informed consent, 649-652, 659, 668

international attitudes and practices, 646, 647, 648, 661, 668-670, 673

legal precedents, 649-651, 658-659, 666

pain management and palliative care, 660, 662, 663, 669, 670-671, 672

parental wishes and rights, 649-652, 659, 660, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668

personhood legislation and, 659-660

professional guidelines, 662, 663, 667-668

proxy decision making, 645-648, 663

quality-of-life issues vs. value of life, 663, 664, 668, 669, 673

religious beliefs and, 661, 672

standard of care, 660-662

at viability threshold, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662

withholding and withdrawal, 662-672

Lindane, 239, 241

Lipopolysaccharide, 190, 196

Lithuania, 235, 668

Live births

data reporting, 9, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81-82, 157

defined, 73, 74

infertility treatments and, 46-47, 157, 158, 159, 164, 165

Long-term care, 417, 418, 422, 459

Low birth weight, 120, 121, 137-142, 152, 153-154, 186, 278.

See also Birth weight

and adult disease risk, 386-389

antenatal maternal steroids and, 299, 651

ART and, 46, 162, 657

defined, 57, 79

family history, 22

international comparisons, 42-43, 315

IUGR and, 606

preterm births, 606-607

prior reports on, 34

trends, 604

Lung.

See also Asthma;

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia;

Fetal;

Neonatal lung disease/injury;

Respiratory distress syndrome;

Restrictive lung disease, maternal

phospholipid profile, 66

surfactant production, 202

Lymphotoxin-alpha (LTA), 212, 213

M

Macrosomia, 181

Magnesium sulfate, 291, 293, 294, 300, 652

Magnetic resonance imaging, 333

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Malaria, 325

Malaysia, 42

Malpractice insurance, 438-439, 441, 450-452

March of Dimes, 20, 33, 446, 467, 690, 706

Basil O’Connor grants, 730

Prematurity Campaign, 34-35, 605-606

Marijuana use, 93, 134

Marital status and preterm birth risk, 127-129, 135, 622, 628-629

Maryland, 168

Massachusetts, 168, 402, 422, 423, 660, 718

Maternal age

and ART, 16, 45, 46-47, 159, 166, 167

and cesarean delivery, 44

and environmental toxicants, 246

and indicated preterm deliveries, 45, 149

and infertility treatments, 154

and multiple gestations, 16, 45, 47, 159, 166

protective effect of marriage, 127, 128

and rehospitalization, 716

and risk of preterm birth, 125-127, 135, 149, 265, 627, 628-629

and tobacco use, 92

and trends in preterm birth, 44-45, 125-127, 606

and unintended pregnancy, 120

weathering hypothesis, 126

Maternal and Child Health Bureau, 447, 462-463

block grants, 19, 465

Maternal depression, 14, 47

Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units (MFMU) Network Study, 271-272, 298, 726

Maternal stature, 80

Maternal weight.

See also Body mass index

duration of gestation and, 94

gain during pregnancy, 94, 151, 283

interpregnancy interval and, 154

obesity, 94, 148, 151-152

prepregnancy, 93

and spontaneous preterm birth, 151-152, 188, 265

underweight, 109, 148, 151, 154, 188, 265, 276, 283

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), 174, 177, 178, 182-183, 185, 195, 271

MMP-1, 175, 183, 190, 191, 211, 215

MMP-2, 190, 215

MMP-3, 183, 191, 215

MMP-8, 175, 190, 211, 215

MMP-9, 175, 183, 187-188, 190, 191, 211, 215

tissue inhibitors of (TIMP), 190, 191

Maturity/maturation.

See also Gestational age;

Measurement of maturity

adaptations to adverse intrauterine conditions, 70-71, 80, 188

defined, 8, 56

and morbidity and mortality, 8, 56

neurological, 67, 340-342

racial/ethnic disparity in rate, 78

signaling mechanisms for labor, 171-172, 179, 188

McHaffie, Hazel, 646, 648

Measurement of maturity

ART and, 61

biophysical profile, 66, 297

birth weight as, 8, 25, 31, 34, 56-59, 62, 347

comparability of methods, 613-614, 635-636

definition of preterm birth and, 55, 57-59

fetal growth curves, 58, 59, 63, 69-70

functional, 68-69

gestational age as proxy, 56-57, 59-65, 337, 609-614

heterogeneity of preterm population, 69-76

LMP, 60-62, 63, 78, 80, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614

lungs, 66

and management of care, 8, 72-76, 83, 337

methods, 62, 85, 609-614

obstetric, 610, 611, 612

neurological, 67, 68-69

physiological severity, 66-67

postnatal, 62, 67-68, 78, 80, 81, 611-613

public health implications, 79-81, 609-610

quality of vital records, 79-81

racial and ethnic disparities, 67-68, 76-78, 80, 612

research implications, 10, 76-83, 612-614

standards of practice, 80

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

ultrasound, 9, 10, 59, 62-65, 68-69, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 610-611, 612

validity and reliability, 610, 613

Mechanical ventilation, 202, 203-204, 205, 334, 340, 341, 342, 343, 403, 664-665, 666, 671-672, 710.

See also Life-sustaining medical treatment

Medicaid, 19, 20, 28, 404, 406, 417, 456-460, 462, 464-465, 466

Medical care costs of preterm birth, 47, 604-605

assistive devices, 418

birth to early childhood, 47, 399, 400, 403-415

birth weight or gestational age and, 401, 410-414, 428, 673, 674, 689, 694-695, 698-700, 704-705, 706-707, 711

burden on minorities, 705

burden on payers, 705-706

categories of costs, 702, 704, 706

characterization and estimates, 707-719

co-morbid and resulting conditions, 11, 415, 707

content limitations of studies, 704-707

direct costs, 402, 415, 688, 707-717

disability-specific beyond early childhood, 415-422

ethical issues, 673-675

geographic adjustment, 409-410, 426, 710

initial hospitalization, 10-11, 406-409, 428, 688, 691-695, 701-702, 704-706, 707-712

inpatient, 410-411, 412, 414, 417, 418

lengths of stay, 406-409, 709, 710, 711

long-term care, 417, 418, 422, 459

maternal, 11, 47, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 426, 704-705, 709, 711

national, 412, 421-422, 428

nonsurvivors, 673, 674, 702

outpatient, 411-412, 413, 414, 417, 422, 715, 717

physician visits, 417, 418

post-discharge, 167, 696-700, 702-704, 706-707, 712-719

prescription medications, 418, 714

public burden, 456-457

readmissions, 408, 706, 707, 714-717

therapy and rehabilitation, 418

time horizon of studies, 706

total, 411, 414

Medical and pregnancy conditions.

See also Genetic susceptibility;

Infection and inflammation, maternal;

Infertility treatments;

Maternal weight;

individual conditions

fetal, 150-151

interpregnancy interval, 152-154

and IUGR, 148, 150

maternal, 148-150, 151-154

Medicare, 406, 417

Medline, 690-691

Meningitis, 325

Menstrual cycle, 60

Mental retardation, 14, 32, 47, 348, 353, 355-356, 374, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

Metabolic pathways, 215-216

Metabolomic technologies, 272

Metals and metalloids, 22, 230, 231, 232, 247-249, 252.

See also individual metals

Metaproterenol, 291

Methodological issues

aggregation bias, 130

analytical challenges, 136, 224-228

behavioral measures, 23-24, 90-91, 93

birth weight as measure of prematurity, 56-59, 62, 347, 386

community factors, 136, 144-146

confounders, 24, 90, 93, 94, 97, 99, 101, 106, 121, 133, 136, 151, 180, 224-225, 226, 233, 235, 239, 242, 635

cost studies, 691-707

data management and integration, 78, 227

diagnostic criteria, 14, 349, 701

ecological-level effects, 145, 231, 233, 253

exposure assessment, 231-232, 235, 239, 244, 245, 253

follow-up studies, 14, 349

generalizability of findings, 690, 702

genetic studies, 223-228

infant mortality rates, 315

international comparisons, 42, 43, 112, 612, 637-638

intervention research, 115, 116-118, 142

maternal vs. fetal genes, 226

measurement error, 130, 145, 231

misclassification error, 130, 245

modeling social context, 136, 139-140, 141-142, 144-146

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

multilevel studies, 141-142, 143, 144-147

multiple-gene testing, 225

nested data structures, 139

observational studies, 91, 95, 101-102, 115-116, 136

outcome measures, 14, 25, 36, 59, 349

phenotype for preterm birth, 224

population admixture, 223, 225-226

psychosocial “exposure” assessments, 97, 99, 101, 107, 109, 112, 114, 115

quality standards, 228

quasiexperimental designs, 107

recall/self-report, 90, 93, 114, 231, 245

reporting and replication of results, 228

sample selection criteria, 14, 118, 349, 377, 701

sample size and power, 101, 227, 342, 701

social exposure assessments, 144

terminological/linguistic, 4-5, 8, 36, 56, 99, 112

Methyl-binding domain proteins, 218

Methylxanthines, 321, 341

Metronidazole, 151, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280

Metropolitan Atlanta Developmental Disability Surveillance Program, 403

Mexican women, 49, 105, 129, 133

Mexico, 42

MFM Units Network Preterm Prediction study, 152

Michigan, 242, 650, 727

Michigan State University, 727

Miller, Nikolaus T., 57

Minnesota, 697

Missouri, 467-468

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) system, 181, 251

Mobiluncus, 269

Morphine, 340

Mortality rates.

See also Infant mortality rate;

Perinatal mortality clarifying, 81-83

intra- and international comparisons, 315-316

Moscow Foundling Hospital, 57

Müllerian duct abnormality, 149

Multiple gestations

ART-related, 16-17, 45-47, 135, 154, 157, 159-160, 161, 163-165, 424, 606

and delivery method, 163

and gestational age at birth, 75, 161-162, 622

and IUGR, 63, 71

live birth rates, 45, 46, 164-165

maternal age and, 44, 45, 47, 159

maternal and child risks, 163-164

measurement of maturity, 80

mycotoxin exposure and, 241

and neuromaturation, 71

ovulation promotion and, 16, 17, 45, 160-161

and PPROM, 189, 191

protective nutrients, 97

and rate of preterm birth, 45-46

reducing rates of, 164-168

reporting requirements, 45, 160

and risk of preterm birth, 12, 46, 47, 97, 159-168, 265, 266, 270, 627, 630-631

socioeconomic differences and, 135, 158

spontaneous, 160, 161

twin-to-twin transfusion sequence, 150

ultrasound detection, 64

and uterine overdistension, 181

Mycoplasma hominis, 99

Mycoplasma species, 269

Mycotoxins, 241

Myosin, 175, 182, 290, 291

Myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), 171, 174, 175, 182, 291, 292

Myotonic dystrophy, 209

N

Narcotic abstinence syndrome, 341

National Center for Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, 447

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 447

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 447

National Center for Health Statistics, 9, 10, 48, 79, 80, 84, 126, 127, 131, 401, 447, 614

National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities, 447

National Center on Quality Assurance, 18-19, 467

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

National Center for Vital Statistics, 691

National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 395-396

National Health Interview Survey, 417

Disability Supplement, 415, 417

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 253, 375

National Human Genome Research Institute, 208

National Human Research Protection Advisory Committee, 448

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 447

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, 447, 726

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 32-33, 35, 152, 221, 279

career development funding, 437, 447, 727, 728

Consensus Conference Panel, 298

MFMU Network Study, 271-272, 298, 300, 726

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 447

National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 447

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 447

National Institute on Drug Abuse, 447, 726

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 210-211, 447

National Institute of Mental Health, 447

National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, 35, 300, 349

National Institute of Nursing Research, 447

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 249

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 446, 447

Consensus Conference, 297

F grants, 727, 728

funding for preterm birth research, 227, 452-453, 725-729

K grants, 437, 727, 728

Medical Scientist Training Program, 440

MFMU network, 726, 727-728

Neonatal Research Network studies, 728

Office of Research on Women’s Health, 33, 158

P grants, 729

R grants, 436, 437, 438, 453-454, 727, 728, 731

recommendations for, 7-8, 15, 17

Roadmap initiative, 7

trainee grants, 437, 727, 728-729

U grants, 436, 453, 727, 728

National Linked Birth Death Data Set, 678

National Medical Expenditure Survey, 417

National Survey of Family Growth, 158

National Vital Statistics System, 79

Necrotizing enterocolitis, 295, 296, 297, 298, 317, 322-323, 326, 670, 677

Neighborhood conditions adverse, 24-25, 37, 136, 137-142, 471

aggregations, 140

and birth weight, 137-142

environmental toxicants, 233, 250

fixed effects models, 140

index of disadvantage, 141

individual-level interactions, 136, 140, 142-143, 147

physical, 138-139, 471

random effects models, 140

service, 137-138

social and cultural characteristics, 137, 142-143, 250

socioeconomic context, 139-141, 142

Neonatal complications of preterm birth.

See also Central nervous system complications;

Neurodevelopmental disabilities;

individual conditions

animal models, 196-200, 202, 203, 206

auditory, 328-329

breastfeeding and, 338, 343

cardiovascular, 198, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 317, 320, 321, 323, 326-327, 331, 333

CNS, see Central nervous system complications

gastrointestinal, 76, 295, 296, 297, 298, 317, 320, 321, 322-324, 326, 327

gestational age and, 3, 13-14, 76, 201-202, 314, 349

hematologic, 87, 327-328

iatrogenic, 349

infections and immune system, 76, 322-323, 324-326, 331, 334, 343, 422

jaundice, 336-337

late-onset problems, 331

management practices and, 343-344

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

near-term or late-preterm infants, 4, 14, 76, 336-337

ophthalmic, 67, 317, 326, 329-331

parenteral nutrition, 323

rehospitalization, 14, 202, 320, 380-381

respiratory, see Neonatal lung disease/injury

severity measures, 66-67

side effects of treatment, 300, 320, 322, 326, 328, 331, 334-335, 336

skin, 324

thermoregulation, 76, 336, 343

transfusions, 327-328

variations in rates, 56, 343-344

viability limit and, 324

Neonatal Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP), 338, 342

Neonatal intensive care units (NICU).

See also Life-sustaining medical treatment

access, 315, 317

costs of care, 403, 406, 429;

see also Medical care costs of preterm birth

environment, 337-338

family-centered care, 338, 339

length of stay, 407, 408, 674

neurodevelopmental support, 337-343

nursing care, 468-469

organizational and management structures, 468-469

outcomes, 19, 349, 351, 468, 673, 674

quality of care, 18, 19, 20, 67, 408, 409, 466, 469-469

regionalization, 20, 21, 315, 316-317, 467, 468, 469, 701, 702

“trials of therapy,” 672, 674

utilization rate, 406

volume and level of care, 468

Neonatal lung disease/injury.

See also Respiratory distress syndrome

alveolarization disruption, 202-203

animal models, 202, 203, 206

apnea, 318, 321, 327

and asthma, 14, 321

BPD/CLD, 202, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319-321, 324, 327, 331, 336, 343, 378-379, 390

corticosterid treatment, 203, 299, 320

gastrointestinal reflux and, 323-324

gestational age at birth and, 201-202, 319

infection/inflammation and, 203, 205, 319, 325, 326, 336

long-term effects, 320, 321

mechanical ventilation and, 202, 203-204, 205, 299, 320, 328, 343

medications, 319-320, 321

and neurodevelopmental outcomes, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-379

oxidative stress and, 204-205

pneumonia, 295, 319, 323, 325

positive end-expiratory pressure and oscillatory ventilation, 204, 319

pulmonary hypoplasia, 318

and reactive airway disease, 14, 32, 319, 323-324, 422

RSV infections, 320-321, 707

and SIDS, 321

surfactant deficiency, 66, 202, 204, 299, 318, 320

viral broncholitis, 320

Neonatal mortality rates, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 184, 292, 295, 314, 412, 677.

See also Infant mortality rate;

Perinatal mortality

Neonatal Research Network, 675, 726

NEOPAIN trial, 652

Netherlands, 163, 364, 383, 661, 668, 669, 670, 675

Neural tube defects, 269

Neurodevelopmental disabilities.

See also Central nervous system complications;

Cognitive impairment

antenatal maternal treatments, 299-300

assessment, 68-69

behavioral and socio-emotional problems, 14, 32, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377

birth weight and, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 420-421

coordination disorders, 349-350, 353-354

early intervention, 15, 380, 393-396

economic costs of, 399, 403, 415-421

factors influencing outcomes, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-380

functional outcomes, 349, 369, 374-377

gestational age and, 14, 349, 350-351, 352, 353, 366, 367, 372, 416, 419

hearing impairment, 14, 47, 328-329, 348, 367, 369-370, 371, 372, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

in late preterm or near-term infants, 4, 14, 374

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

lung disease/injury and, 318, 319, 320, 321

motor impairment, 14, 32, 47, 334, 335-336, 348-349, 350-354, 374, 375;

see also Cerebral palsy

physical therapy and medical interventions, 353

predictors, 349, 379

prevalence, 349, 415, 416, 417, 419, 420-421

PWMD and, 335-336

risks of, 3, 14, 32, 325, 327

sensorimotor integration problems, 354

severity of, 14-15, 372-374

special education costs, 47

treatment-related risks, 334-335

visual impairment, 14, 47, 329-331, 348, 353, 354, 366-369, 371, 372, 375, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

Neurodevelopmental support

breastfeeding, 338

clustered care, 339

kangaroo care, 338, 343

NIDCAP, 338, 342

pain and discomfort, 339, 340

positioning and handling, 337-338, 340-342

sensory input in NICU environment, 338-339

and weight gain, 339, 343

Neuroendocrine processes, stress-related, 179

Neurofibromatosis, 209

Neurological morbidity. See Central nervous system complications;

Neurodevelopmental disabilities

Neurotrophins, 214

Neutrophil collagenase, 175

Neutrophil elastase, 175

Nevada, 41

New Freedom Initiative, 463

New Jersey, 168, 423, 450, 675, 682

New York, 239, 242

New Zealand, 679

Niacin, 219

Nifedipine, 292-293

Nitrates, 240, 241, 252

Nitric oxide, 676

donors, 291, 294-295

and parturition process, 171, 173, 175, 213

synthase, 294

6-Nitro-7-sulfamoylbenzo(f)quinoxaline-2,3-dione, 199

L-Nitro-arginine methylester, 175

Nitroglycerin, 294-295

Nitrous oxides, 234-235, 236

North Carolina, 104, 679, 731

Norway, 42, 240-241, 248, 249, 265, 647

Nutrition, maternal.

See also Maternal weight

access issues, 138

and birth weight, 95, 96, 134

cultural context, 142

dietary composition, 24, 94-95, 134

education, 472

and epigenetic modifications, 219

fish and fish oil, 96-97, 242

measurement of diet, 94

multivitamin supplements, 94

and PPROM, 189

prepregnancy weight, 93

and risk of preterm birth, 265, 273

socioeconomic disparities, 26, 133, 134

starvation, 194

vitamins and minerals, 24, 94, 95-97, 121, 189, 219, 247, 274

Nutrition, neonatal, 203, 338, 343

Nylidrin, 291

O

Obesity, 94, 134, 151-152

Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, 158

Oligohydramnios, 293

Olive oil, 96-97

Operation Ranch Hand, 250

Ophthalmic impairment

amblyopia, 331, 366, 368

birth weight and, 366, 367, 368

cataracts, 331, 368

cortical visual impairments, 331, 368

CP-related impairment, 353

gestational age and, 366

glaucoma, 331, 368

lens anterior vascular capsule, 67, 329

optic nerve atrophy, 331, 368

plus disease, 330

refractive disorders, 331, 366, 368, 376

retinal detachment, 331, 368

ROP, 317, 326, 329-331, 366, 368, 375, 378, 384, 707

strabismus, 14, 331, 366

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Oral contraceptive use, 60

Orciprenaline, 291

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 710

Organophosphate pesticides, 239-240, 241

Otitis media, 328

Outcomes for premature infants.

See also Cognitive impairment;

Neurodevelopmental disabilities

accuracy of professional estimates of, 651-652

antibiotic therapy and, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280

ART and, 17, 46, 162, 657

behavioral and socio-emotional problems, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396

early intervention and, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 469-470

educational achievement, 365-366, 376, 377, 381, 394

family impacts, 389-393, 395-396

fetal-origins hypothesis, 386-389

functional, 349, 369, 374-377, 384, 392, 396

gestational age at birth and, 347-348

growth, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382, 387, 388

health, 3, 14, 32, 202, 320, 380-381, 386-389

intact survival, 373-374

maternal mental health and, 378, 380, 390

measures, 14, 25, 36, 59, 349

methodological issues, 14, 25, 36, 59, 347, 349, 377, 386-387, 396-397

multiple disabilities, 371-372

neonatal factors, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-379

prenatal and intrapartum predictors, 378

quality of care and, 409, 465, 631, 633, 677-678

quality of life, 383-386

reporting, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157

research recommendations, 13-16, 349, 378, 392-393, 430-431, 484-485

severity of disability and, 372-374, 390

social support and, 390

socioeconomic conditions and, 379-380, 396

treatment interventions, 12, 288-301

Ovarian cancer, 163, 338

Ovulation hyperstimulation syndrome, 163

Ovulation promotion, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 162, 163, 167, 168, 258

Oxidative stress, 197, 204-205

Oxytocin

and parturition process, 170, 171, 172, 175, 178, 179, 215

receptor antagonists, 291, 293-294

receptors, 174, 177, 181, 215, 294

Ozone, 234, 235, 236-237

P

p53 protein, 191

Pancuronium, 334

Papiernik, Émile, 605

Parathyroid hormone-related peptide, 171

Parity, and risk of preterm birth, 628-629

Parturition process

animal models, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254

ART and, 177

behavioral response, 180-181

Braxton-Hicks contractions, 171

cervical ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181

CRH and, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215

decidual and fetal membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175

decidual hemorrhage and, 17, 182-183

environmental toxicants and 251-252, 254

estrogens and, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215

gene-environment interactions and, 177, 187

implantation errors and, 187-188

infection and inflammation and, 21, 22, 36, 135, 176, 179-180, 184-187, 195-196, 199-200, 213-214, 251, 252, 265, 325

intrauterine vascular lesions and, 176-177

involution, 170, 175

maternal health risk, 13

myometrial activation, 170, 171-172, 263

myometrial stimulation, 170, 171, 172-175

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

NIH research portfolio, 726-727

normal pathways, 170-176

obesity and, 94

oxytocin and, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 215, 293

placental clock, 111, 172-173, 176, 177-181, 188

preterm pathogenesis, 12, 111, 176-189

progesterone and, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 215

prostaglandins and, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 195, 215, 251, 293

quiescence, 170, 171, 173, 292

research needs, 189

signaling mechanisms for labor, 68, 110, 171-173, 179, 185, 251

stress and, 111, 177-181

uterine contractility, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251

uterine overdistension and, 181

uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183, 214-215

Parvovirus infection, 82

Patent ductus arteriosus, 198, 293, 297, 326-327

Paternal

exposure to environmental toxicants, 240, 243, 249-250

perceptions of impacts, 391

rights, 448, 680-681

Pennsylvania, 234, 450, 664, 696

Perhydroxyl, 204

Perinatal care.

See also Neonatal intensive care units

access to, 673, 676-678

evidence-based selective referral, 20-21, 468

quality of, 19, 20, 31-32, 133, 469, 631, 633, 676

regionalization, 20, 316-317, 676

Perinatal mortality

antenatal maternal treatment and, 297, 298, 300

ART and, 657

data reporting, 10, 82

defined, 73-74, 82

gestational age and, 288

regionalization and NICU access and, 289, 292, 677-678

viability limit and, 73-74, 82, 630

Periodontal infections, 110, 184, 186, 187, 265, 279-280

Peritonitis, 323

Periventricular white matter disease (PWMD)

animal models, 196-197, 199-200

antenatal corticosteroid therapy and, 297

cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379

cerebral white matter lesions, 196, 197, 199-200

cerebrovascular regulatory impairment and, 198, 333, 335

hypoperfusion and, 197

incidence, 196

infection or inflammation and, 199-200, 317, 326, 335

and neurodevelopmental diabilities, 335-336

periventricular leukomalacia, 196-197, 199-200, 297, 298, 333, 335, 336, 366, 379

pre-OL vulnerability, 198-199, 335

and strabismus, 366

in ventilated premature infants, 198

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, 252

Personal resources, 118-120, 127

Personal Responsibility Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act, 462

Personhood, 653, 659-660

PGDH, 174

PGE, 181

PGE2, 174, 191

PGF2α, 174

PGHS, 174

PGHS-2, 181

Pharmacogenetics Research Network and Knowledge Base (PharmGKB), 227

Phenobarbital, 300, 334

Philippines, 153

Phosphatidylglycerol, 66

Phospholipase A2, 191, 251

Phospholipase C, 182

Phthalates, 252, 253

Phthisis, 331

Physical activity

leisure, 24, 99

neonatal, 341

occupational demands, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

protective effects, 99, 341

reduction, 273, 282, 283

Physiological severity measures, 66-67

Placenta previa, 163, 262, 265

Placental

abruption, 45, 70, 90, 150, 162-163, 182, 183, 189, 265

clock, 172-173, 177-181

infarction, 70

separation, 175

Plasmin, 175

Platelet-activating factor, 205

Pneumonia, neonatal, 295, 325

Pneumothorax, 202, 334

Poland, 248

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 252

Polychlorinated biphenyls, 241-243, 251

Polyhydramnios, 181, 191, 209, 610

Porencephaly, 379

Post-NICU discharge interventions

Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395

early infant and childhood, 393-394

National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 395-396

Post-term infants, 80

Post-traumatic stress disorder, 112

Postdate pregnancy, 263

Postmenstrual age, 61, 69

Postpartum endometritis, 185

Prediction/predictors of preterm birth

biological, 220, 269-271

biophysical, 267-269, 270, 272

Bishop scores, 267

cervical examination, 267, 268-269

clinical, 265-267

fetal fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272

lower genital tract markers, 269, 270, 271, 272

multiple-marker approach, 271-273

rationale for, 264-265, 272

research needs, 272-273

sensitivity, 3, 270

serum biomarkers, 269, 270

uterine contractions, 267-268

Preeclampsia, 45, 70, 82, 148, 150, 162, 163, 186, 188, 219, 220, 221, 262, 263, 655

Pregnancy Outcomes in Community Health Study, 729

Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 105, 120

Premature rupture of membranes (PROM).

See also Preterm premature rupture of membranes

corticosteroid therapy, 297

defined, 182

emotional and affective factors, 111

lead exposure and, 247

mechanisms, 183, 220

nutrition and, 95

occupational fatigue and, 98

prolonged, 70

smoking and, 90

Prenatal care.

See also Neonatal intensive care units;

Perinatal care

access to, 9, 19, 26-27, 34, 36, 64, 133, 143, 273, 282, 316

data reporting on, 79, 81

focus of, 263

Medicaid eligibility, 19, 465

and preterm birth rate, 131, 139, 143, 265, 465, 633

prior reports on, 34

racial/ethnic disparities and, 26-27, 36, 64, 131, 133, 679

socioeconomic conditions and, 133, 135, 143

stress and, 181

time of initiation, 79, 81, 606

ultrasound standard, 9, 64, 83

Prenatal counseling, 651

Prenatal education, 101

Prenatal stress, maternal

animal models, 102, 180

behavioral response, 180-181

biological responses, 101, 110, 144, 179-180, 626

and birth weight, 104, 180

catastrophic events, 24, 27, 105-106, 107, 111, 121, 180

chronic exposures, 24, 27, 105, 106-107, 110, 111, 121, 135, 137, 142, 180, 626

community context, 137, 142, 143-144

coping strategies, 137, 180

cultural considerations, 26, 36, 111-112, 142

defined, 177

developmental effects, 102

domestic/personal violence, 24, 110, 135

emotional components, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111, 121-122

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

fetal response, 71, 102, 104

gestational age and, 104

household strain, 110

immune and inflammatory processes, 101, 110, 144, 179-180

intervention trials, 101

life events, 24, 103, 104-105, 108, 112, 121, 132, 135, 181, 625

linking mechanisms, 110-111

measuring, 146

methodological issues, 101, 103-104, 146, 180

and neurobehavioral indices, 102

neuroendocrine processes, 144, 179

observational studies, 101

occupational/work, 47, 97, 109-110, 135

physiologic reactivity, 111

and placental clock, 177-181

and racial/ethnic disparities, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113-114, 130, 132, 133

racism and discrimination and, 24, 113-114, 123, 132, 136

reduction, 273, 282

research recommendations, 122-123

and risk of preterm birth, 265

socioeconomic conditions and, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 113, 135, 142

unintended pregnancy and, 120, 135

vulnerable time during pregnancy, 108

Preterm Birth Among Inner City Women:

Bacterial Vaginosis, Stressors and Race project, 729

Preterm labor, 608-609.

See also Parturition process

antibiotic therapy, 273, 295-296

anxiety and, 108, 111

bed rest, 275

clinical evidence, 263

contraction monitoring, 274, 275, 276

diagnosis, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290

efficacy of interventions, 289

ethical issues, 287

genetic markers, 223

history of, 107, 274, 275

infections/inflammation and, 211, 295

racial/ethnic disparities, 77

and risk of preterm birth, 267-268, 286-287, 608

sexual activity and, 99

symptoms, 284

tocolytic agents and, 184, 273, 275, 276, 280, 285, 289, 290-295

twins, 275

Preterm Prediction Study, 93, 94, 271-272

Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), 608.

See also Premature rupture of membranes

antibiotic therapy and, 278, 296, 727

genetic susceptibility, 211-212, 223

potential mechanisms, 183, 190-191, 211

previous, 189

racial/ethnic disparities, 77-78, 211-212

risk factors, 189-190, 608-609

uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183

Prevention of preterm birth.

See also Treatment interventions

antibiotic therapy, 22, 132, 274, 275, 276-280

cerclage, 273, 274, 281-282

early detection and suppression of labor, 264, 273, 275-276

economic evaluation, 427-428

efficacy of interventions, 12, 264, 272-283, 633

focus of efforts, 3, 264

medical interventions, 273-280

neighborhood interventions, 143

nonmedical interventions, 273, 274, 282-283

preconception care, 264, 278-279

progesterone supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281

research needs, 4

surgical interventions, 273, 281-282

Prevotella, 269

Progesterone

antagonist, 194

and parturition process, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 192

receptor, 173, 215

supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281, 727-728, 729-73

Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, 143

Prolactin, 214

Prostacyclin (PGI2), 171

Prostaglandins

H2 synthase, 173

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

and parturition process, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 186, 191, 195, 251

receptors, 174, 215

Protease-activated receptors, 182

Proteinuria, 149

Proteoaminoglycans, 174-175

Proteomics, 219-221, 272

Psychosocial factors.

See also Prenatal stress, maternal

emotional response and affective states, 110-111, 121-122

individual-level perspective, 37, 89, 123

intendedness of pregnancy, 24, 118, 120-121, 123

personal resources, 118-120, 123

research recommendations, 122-123

social support, 115-118, 122, 136

violence, 24

Public health databases, 79-81

Public policies and programs.

See also individual programs

coordination of, 469-470

early intervention, 28, 469-470

economic burdens of preterm birth, 28, 456-472

education, 28, 456, 460

expenditures, 456-463

financing health care, 28, 456-460, 462-63, 464-466, 470

foster care, 456, 458, 463

income supports, 28, 456, 457, 459, 460-462, 470

juvenile justice, 458, 463

options for improving outcomes, 464-472

pro-family, 471

quality-of-care initiatives, 466-469

research recommendations, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492

social reforms, 470-472

Puerto Rican women, 49, 129

Pyelonephritis, 279

Q

Quality of care

managed care and, 467

measures of, 467

NICU, 18, 20, 466

perinatal, 466-469

prenatal, 18-19, 20

racial/ethnic disparities, 77

regionalization and, 20, 467-469, 676

Quality of life, 383-386, 428, 663, 668, 669

R

Racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639.

See also individual racial or ethnic groups

access to care, 315, 678

behavioral and social factors, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133

birth weight, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209

classification of racial and ethnic groups, 48, 221

community context, 136, 137, 138-139, 140

educational attainments and, 130

etiology of preterm birth, 77-78

exposure to environmental toxicants, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251

fetal maturation rate, 78

gene-environment interactions, 132-133, 223

genetic influences, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223

gestational age distributions at birth, 619

gestational age estimates, 67-68, 76-78, 80, 612

geographic differences, 638-639

infant mortality rates, 26, 36, 50-51, 76, 77, 78, 112, 113, 130, 315-316, 630, 638-639

infections, 26, 27, 36, 50-51, 100, 130, 132, 133, 278

infertility problems, 158

interpregnancy interval, 153

intra- and inter-group variations, 129, 146

life-course perspective, 37

marital status-related risks, 125, 127, 128

maternal-age-related risks, 126, 127, 128

measuring risk, 138

nativity and duration of residence and, 26, 129, 133, 140, 146, 628-629

prenatal care, 9, 26-27, 36, 64, 131, 133

prenatal stress, 26, 27, 36, 111-112, 130, 132, 133

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

psychosocial factors and, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 119, 132

quality of care, 77

rates of preterm birth, 4, 5, 12, 26-27, 36, 48-49, 76, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 120-121, 126, 130, 133, 465, 631

research recommendations, 6, 26-27, 48, 147, 158, 257, 490-491

risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 129-135, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629

sociodemographic risk factors, 125, 126, 129-133

socioeconomic disparities, 26, 51, 106-107, 112, 113, 114, 120-121, 125, 129, 130, 133-135, 147, 250

vital record reporting, 617

Racism and discrimination, 24, 36, 113-114, 132, 471, 678

RAND Corporation, 465

Reactive airway disease, 14, 32, 319, 323-324, 422

Reactive oxygen species, 191, 205

Recombinant human erythropoietin, 329, 336

Recommendations. See Research recommendations

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 665

Rehabilitation services, 459

Relaxin, 171, 215, 270

Renal disorders, maternal, 149

Reporting. See Data reporting on preterm birth

Reproductive research. See Clinical research on preterm birth

Reproductive Scientist Development Program, 437

Research recommendations.

See also Clinical research on preterm birth;

Funding for clinical research and training

behavioral and psychosocial risk factors, 23-26, 122-123

causes of preterm birth, 255-258

clinical and health services research, 6, 12-21, 473-474, 482-488

data collection, 6, 8-10, 84-85, 480-482

delivery of health care, 19-21, 474, 488

diagnosis and treatment, 12-13, 308-309, 483-484

economic consequences, 6, 10-12, 431, 482

etiology of preterm birth, 6, 21-23, 188, 255-256, 488-489

evaluation of public programs and policies, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492

infertility treatments, 16-18, 257-258, 485-487

multidisciplinary research centers, 6, 7-8, 473-474, 479-480

multiple gestations, 16-18, 258, 485-487

multiple risk factors, 256-257, 489-490

outcomes of preterm birth, 13-16, 349, 430-431, 484-485

priorities, 6, 8-27, 478-479, 480-491

quality of care, 18-19, 474, 487

racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities, 6, 26-27, 48, 257, 490-491

Respiratory distress syndrome

antenatal maternal steroids and, 77, 296, 297, 298, 299-300, 318

biological mechanisms, 66, 202

gestational age at birth and, 76, 318, 336

incidence, 318, 336

inflammation and, 205

management practices and, 343

mortality rate, 202, 318

racial/ethnic disparities, 77, 318

respiratory support, 204, 296, 318-319, 403

surfactant therapy, 202, 204, 296, 299-300, 318, 690, 728

thyrotropin releasing hormone and, 300

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 320-321, 707

Restrictive lung disease, maternal, 149

Resuscitation at delivery, 72, 73, 74, 82, 647, 649, 650-651, 658-659, 673-675

Retinoblastoma, 164

Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), 317, 326, 329-331, 366, 368, 375, 378, 384, 707

Retroplacental hematomas, 183

Rhode island, 168

Risk factors for preterm birth.

See also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth

behavioral and psychosocial, 625-626

demographic, 625

efficacy of interventions by, 274-275

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

for indicated preterm birth, 149, 150, 262

medical, 624, 625

multifactoral nature of, 5, 37, 626

mutable, 626

sensitivity of biomarkers, 270

strongest factors, 12, 265-267

trends in preterm birth by, 624-627, 628-631, 632

Risk factors for rehospitalization, 716

Ritodrine, 291-292, 294-295

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 467

RU-486, 194

Rubella, 263, 325

Russian Federation, 42, 243

S

Salbutamol, 291

Saturated phosphatidylcholine, 66

Scoring for Neonatal Acute Physiology, 67

Scotland, 26, 133, 646, 647

Sepsis, neonatal, 76, 295, 296, 298, 323, 325, 330, 331, 334

Sexual activity, 99, 377

Sexually transmitted infections, 27, 110, 132, 133, 135, 325

Shake test, 66

Sickle cell disease, 222

Single mothers, 127, 129, 135, 606, 617, 628-629

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 210, 211, 216, 224

Small for gestational age, 4, 36, 58-59, 69-70, 79, 97-98, 212, 315, 386, 387, 606, 607, 609, 637, 657

Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, 209

SNP Consortium Ltd., 209

Social Security Administration, 461

Social support

and birth weight or fetal growth, 116, 143

conceptualizations, 115

defining and measuring, 115

emotional support, 115

information, 115

instrumental aid, 115

intervention research, 101, 115, 116-118

marital status and, 127

neighborhood environment and, 137, 143

observational studies, 115-116

and outcomes, 390

Societal costs of preterm birth.

See also Medical care costs of preterm birth

aggregate annual, 31, 47, 399

caregiver, 402, 426-427

cognitive impairment, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425

cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses, 689-690

cost-of-illness methodology, 402-403, 688, 689

data sources and search strategies, 690-691

definitions, 688-689

direct costs, 402, 415, 688, 707-717

early intervention services, 11, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 675

economic evaluation of preventive measures, 427-428

education, 11, 47, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 415, 417, 423-424, 456, 457, 675, 706, 717-719

ethical issues, 673-679

family, 3, 47, 371, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712

indirect (household and labor market productivity), 11, 47, 399, 400, 402, 403, 415, 417, 425, 712, 713, 719, 720

international comparisons, 690, 692-699, 707, 710

methods, 689-691

per patient, 399, 691, 705, 707, 708, 710, 711-712

policy and research recommendations, 6, 10-12, 431, 482, 721-722

population description, 689-690

projections, 691

public programs, 28, 456-463

studies of, 691, 692-700

Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology, 165

Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, 33, 437

Society for Pediatric Research, 690

Sociodemographic risk factors.

See also Geographic differences;

Maternal age;

Racial/ethnic disparities;

Socioeconomic conditions

birth defects, 151

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

and impacts of preterm birth, 14-15

marital or cohabitation status, 127-129, 135, 628-629

Socioeconomic conditions

and behavioral factors, 90, 93, 133, 134-135

and birth weight, 139-140

clustering of disadvantages, 138

community context, 139-141, 142, 233

confounding in behavioral and psychosocial studies, 90, 93, 94, 97, 98, 121, 133

and costs of preterm birth, 718

distributive justice issues, 678-679

exposure to environmental toxicants, 232-233, 240, 250

infections, 26-27, 135

international comparisons, 133

mediators of preterm birth, 133-135

and multiple gestations, 135, 158

and nutrition, 94, 95, 133, 134

and outcomes of preterm birth, 379-380, 396

and personal resources, 119

prenatal care, 135

and racial/ethnic disparities, 51, 129, 130, 133-135, 147

and risk of preterm birth, 4, 5, 24, 26, 36, 51, 60, 98, 126, 133-135, 136, 470-471, 628-629

and stress, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 135, 142

Sodium nitroprusside, 175

Solvents, 249

South Africa, 42

South Carolina, 77, 677

Spain, 26, 42, 133, 239, 247-248

Special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 399, 400, 415, 417, 423-424, 458, 460, 673, 717-718

Special Education Expenditure Project, 424

Spina bifida, 150

Spontaneous preterm birth, defined, 36.

See also Parturition process

State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), 19, 457, 458, 465

Stem cells, 327

Strabismus, 14, 331, 366

Streptokinase, 333-334

Stress.

See also Prenatal stress, maternal

defined, 100-101

on families, 47

neonatal, 340

oxidative, 204-205

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 447

Sudan, 42

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 321

Sulindac, 293

Sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252

Superovulation therapies, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 258

Superoxide, 199, 204

Supplemental Security Income, 28, 457, 458, 459, 460-462

Survey of Income and Program Participation, 417, 425

Sweden

end-of-life practices, 668

health care policies, 26, 166-167, 168, 470, 677

preterm birth studies and statistics, 42, 110, 133, 209, 234, 248, 351, 353, 369, 376, 677

Switzerland, 42

Sympathoadrenal-medullary (SAM) system, 179

Syphilis, 325

Systemic lupus erythematosus, 148, 149, 150

T

Taiwan, 244

Tay-Sachs disease, 222

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, 28, 458, 459, 462, 470, 471

Terbutalin, 291, 292

Termination of pregnancy

induced, 64, 73, 657, 660, 681

spontaneous abortion, 60, 81, 188

Terrorist attacks of 9/11, 105-106, 111

Tetracycline, 276, 278

Texas, 650, 696

Th1-type cytokine, 188

Th2-type cytokines, 188

Thailand, 97-98

Theophylline, 321

Thompson, Tommy, 446

Thrombin, 177, 182-183, 191

Thrombin-antithrombin III (TAT) complex, 183, 269

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

Thrombin receptor agonist peptide type 14, 191

Thrombophilias, 82

Thromboxane B2, 205

Thyroid disease, 82

Thyroxine, 336

Title V Maternal and Child Health programs, 28, 458, 462-469

Tobacco use

and birth weight, 90, 217, 283

confounding in environmental studies, 235

cultural context, 142

gene-smoking interaction, 217

and gestational age at birth, 622

and hypertension, 91

interventions, 101

and IUGR, 217

maternal age and, 92

as outcome of preterm birth, 371

prenatal stress and, 181

and preterm birth, 36, 90, 91-92, 130-131, 134, 136, 217, 266, 317, 622, 630-631

prevalence, 217

and PPROM, 189, 191

racial/ethnic disparities and, 27, 36, 92, 131, 317, 679

and rehospitalization risk, 716

second-hand smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321

socioeconomic conditions and, 90, 133, 134

unintended pregnancy and, 120

Tocolytic (labor-inhibiting) agents, 184, 273, 280, 290-295

Toll-like receptors, 187, 211, 214

Topiramate, 199

Toxics Release Inventory, 253

Toxoplasma, 325

Training clinical researchers

costs, 438

funding, 436, 437

length of training, 438-439

Transforming growth factor, 214

Treatment interventions.

See also Antibiotics;

Life-sustaining medical treatment

antenatal, to reduce neonatal morbidity, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318

CNI complications, 333-334, 336

corticosteroids, 296-299, 334

informed decision making, 287-288, 289

maternal transfer, 12-13, 287, 289, 291, 292, 295, 300-301

off-label medicine use, 447-448

strategies and effectiveness, 12, 288-301

tocolytic drugs, 184, 273, 275, 276, 290-295

Trends in preterm birth

ART and, 45-47, 617

data reporting issues, 635-636

delivery method, 43-44, 622, 623

extremely low risk mothers, 622, 624

geographic differences, 40-41, 614-617, 618, 620-621, 630, 631

by gestational age, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623

hypertensive or diabetic mother, 617, 622

infant mortality rate, 39-40, 627, 630-631, 632-625

international comparisons, 42-43

marital status, 617

maternal age, 44-45, 617, 632

multiple births, 45-47, 617, 622, 623

racial/ethnic disparities, 614, 616, 617, 619-622, 631

rates, 2-3, 38, 406, 604, 614-617

by risk factor, 624-627, 628-631, 632

singleton, 39

smokers, 617, 622

socioeconomic status, 622-623

Trichloroacetic acid, 244

Trichomonas vaginalis, 99, 277, 279

Trihalomethanes, 244, 245

Tryptophan, 219

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), 132, 174, 179, 185, 191, 200, 205, 211, 212, 213-214, 217, 269, 271

U

Ultrasound

access to, 64, 611

cervical evaluation, 268-269, 271, 281-282, 285

costs and benefits, 64-65, 68

cranial, 68

gestational age measurement, 9, 10, 59, 62-65, 68-69, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 610-611, 612

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

neuroimaging, 333, 335

safety, 65

standards of practice, 9, 64, 83

timing of, 80

training of personnel, 83, 611

weight estimates by, 70

Underweight women, 109, 148, 151, 154, 188

Unintended pregnancy, 24, 120-121, 135

United Arab Emirates, 153

United Kingdom, 42, 385, 394-395, 409, 376, 668, 675-676, 690, 692, 693, 696, 697, 712

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 42

University of California at San Francisco, 664

University of Chicago, 665, 672, 674

University of Michigan, 727

University of North Carolina, 661

Urban Institute, 463

Ureaplasma urealyticum, 185, 270, 276

Urinary tract infections

maternal, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276

neonatal, 325

U.S. Collaborative Perinatal Project, 238

U.S. Department of Education, 15

Office of Special Education Programs, 395

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 446, 448

U.S. National Maternal and Infant Health Survey, 209

U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 48

Utah Birth Defects Prevention Network, 150

Uterine

abnormality, 266

artery resistance, 102

contractility/contractions, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251, 267-268, 291

overdistension, 181, 269

stretch, 170, 171, 181

tumors, 158

Uterine-derived catecholestrogen, 187

Uteroplacental

genetic pathways, 214-215

insufficiency, 63, 69, 611

thrombosis, 182-183

V

Vaginal bleeding, 12, 62, 183, 191, 265

Vaginal microflora, 100

Vaginosis. See Bacterial vaginosis

Vascular epithelial growth factor, 187

Ventricular peritoneal (VP) shunt, 333-334

Vermont, 651

Vermont Oxford Network, 404, 408, 409, 468, 469

Very low birth weight, 21, 47, 59, 79, 105, 113, 114, 196, 202-203, 325, 403-404, 409, 423, 468, 646, 657

Viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681

Vietnam, 243, 250

Violence, 24, 110, 138

Virginia, 41, 671-672

Visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394.

See also Ophthalmic impairment

Vital records, 43

Vitamin A, 319

Vitamin C, 24, 95, 189, 274

Vitamin E, 274, 331, 334

Vitamin K, 300, 334

W

Wayne State University, 727

Weight. See Maternal weight

West Africa, 240

Whites (non-Hispanic)

alcohol use, 27

birth certificate data, 81

birth weights, 77, 130, 140, 209, 679

BMI (maternal), 151

douching practices, 100

educational attainment, 130

estimates of gestational age in, 67-68

illicit drug use, 27

income and net worth, 146

infant mortality rate, 51, 130, 630

infections/inflammation, 27, 100, 132, 222

infertility, 158

interpregnancy interval, 153

IUGR, 107

marital status, 128

maternal age, 128

multiple births, 617

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
×

neighborhood environment, 137, 138, 140, 143

prenatal care, 131

rate of preterm birth, 5, 26, 48, 76, 128, 130, 315, 614, 616, 617, 620-621, 622, 678, 679

risk of preterm birth, 209, 212, 265

stress, 107, 108, 132

tobacco use, 27, 92, 131, 617

WIC program, 470

Wisconsin, 242, 659, 665, 666, 682, 693

Women’s Reproductive Health Research program, 437

World Health Organization, 42, 57, 72, 383

Y

Yaffe, S., 605

Yeast infection, 277

Z

Zinc supplementation, 95

Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT), 155, 156.

See also Assisted reproductive technologies

Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2007. Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11622.
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Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention Get This Book
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The increasing prevalence of preterm birth in the United States is a complex public health problem that requires multifaceted solutions. Preterm birth is a cluster of problems with a set of overlapping factors of influence. Its causes may include individual-level behavioral and psychosocial factors, sociodemographic and neighborhood characteristics, environmental exposure, medical conditions, infertility treatments, and biological factors. Many of these factors co-occur, particularly in those who are socioeconomically disadvantaged or who are members of racial and ethnic minority groups.

While advances in perinatal and neonatal care have improved survival for preterm infants, those infants who do survive have a greater risk than infants born at term for developmental disabilities, health problems, and poor growth. The birth of a preterm infant can also bring considerable emotional and economic costs to families and have implications for public-sector services, such as health insurance, educational, and other social support systems.

Preterm Birth assesses the problem with respect to both its causes and outcomes. This book addresses the need for research involving clinical, basic, behavioral, and social science disciplines. By defining and addressing the health and economic consequences of premature birth, this book will be of particular interest to health care professionals, public health officials, policy makers, professional associations and clinical, basic, behavioral, and social science researchers.

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