Index
A
Academic/school problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374
Access to care, 9, 19, 34, 138, 673, 676-678
Adenyl cyclase, 291
Adenylate cyclase, 173
Administration for Children and Families, 447
Adolescents, 44, 120, 125-126, 265, 349, 364, 377, 381, 382, 448, 449, 463, 628-629, 678, 679, 681-682
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 172, 173, 179, 188
Advisory Committee on Infant Mortality, 452, 464
African Americans
alcohol use, 27
birth certificate data, 81
birth weights, 25, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138, 139, 140, 154, 209
depression, 109
douching practices, 100
drug abuse, 27
educational attainment, 114, 130
environmental toxicant exposure, 251
estimates of gestational age in, 67-68
fetal maturation rate, 78
foreign-born vs. U.S.-born, 26, 129
growth outcomes, 382
income and net worth, 146
infant mortality rates, 50-51, 77, 112, 130, 315-316, 630
infertility, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153, 154
low-income, 106-107, 112, 113, 120-121, 125
marital status–related risks, 125, 127, 128
maternal age–related risks, 126, 128
neighborhood environment, 137, 138-139, 140, 142, 143
personal resources, 119
prepregnancy health, 125
rates of preterm birth, 5, 12, 26, 48-49, 76, 112, 130, 133, 222, 250, 315, 614, 616, 620-621, 678, 679
risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629
Age.
See also Maternal age
perinatal terminology, 61
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 17, 158, 447
Agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252
Air pollution exposures
location of residence and, 138, 232, 235, 250
particulates, 22-23, 231, 234, 235-236, 237, 252
PCBs, 242
sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252
Alan Guttmacher Institute, 690
Albuterol, 291
Alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142, 371
Aldrin, 239
Alkaline phosphatase, 270, 272
α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA), 199
Altitude, and birth weight, 70
Aluminum sulfate, 249
American Academy of Pediatrics, 35, 57, 320-321, 647, 649, 655, 660, 663, 666, 667-668
American Association of Gynecology and Obstetrics Foundation, 437
American Board of Obstetric and Gynecology, 437
American Board of Pediatrics, 439
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 18, 33, 64, 258, 278, 292, 448
sample antepartum record, 302-307
workforce data, 441
American Indians/Alaska Natives
birth weights, 77
educational attainment, 130
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
preterm birth rates, 5, 49, 128
American Medical Association, 653
American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM), 17, 18, 33, 165-166, 168, 258
Amniocentesis, 66
Amnionitis, 70, 184, 185-186, 191, 195, 200, 220
Amplitude-integrated EEG, 68, 69
Anemia, 94-95, 163, 266, 327-328
Angelman syndrome, 164
Angiotensin II, 179
Animal models
intrauterine infections, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 195-196, 199-200
neonatal sequelae, 196-200, 202, 203, 206
parturition pathways, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254
species comparison of reproductive characteristics, 194-195
Antenatal counseling, 646
Antenatal maternal treatments, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318, 651
Antibiotics.
See also individual antibiotics
efficacy for prevention of preterm birth, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280, 296, 727
gestational age and, 278
maternal infection, 132, 151, 186, 196, 276-280
neonatal side effects, 319, 322
for preterm labor, 273, 295-296
Anticonvulsant drugs, 199
Anxiety, 24, 103, 104, 107-108, 111-112, 180, 371
Apoptosis, 175, 188, 191, 199, 200, 325
Appendicitis, 279
Arab Americans, 158
Arachidonic acid, 174, 191, 205, 251, 293
Arginine, 294
Arizona, 679
Artificial insemination, 16, 45, 157
Asians/Pacific Islanders
birth weights, 140
educational attainment, 130
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
neighborhood environment, 140
preterm birth rates, 5, 26, 48, 49-50, 76, 128, 133, 222
Assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
See also specific procedures
accreditation of embryo laboratories, 165
ASRM practice guidelines, 17, 165-166, 168, 258
delivery method, 163
estimated date of confinement, 61
incidence of pregnancies, 155-157, 167-168
infant mortality rates, 17, 162, 657
international comparisons, 166-167
live birth trends, 46-47, 157, 164, 165
low birth weights, 46, 162, 657, 679
maternal age and, 16, 45, 46-47, 159, 166, 167
maternal and child health risks, 162-164
multiple gestations, 16-17, 45-47, 135, 154, 157, 159-160, 161, 163-165, 258, 266, 424, 606, 631
number of embryos transferred, 159, 165-168, 258, 656-658
oversight/regulation, 164-165, 258
parturition pathways, 177
preterm birth trends and risks, 16, 17, 37, 45-47, 161, 265, 266-267, 631, 657, 678, 679
reporting of outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157
singletons, 17, 46, 159, 162-163, 168, 266-267, 657
success rate, 166
utilization rate, 156, 157, 159
Association of American Medical Colleges, 438, 442
Association of Pediatric Department Chairs, 437
Atherosclerosis, 152
Atrazine, 240
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 14, 32, 348, 370, 371, 374, 463
Australia, 42, 43, 209, 369, 646, 661, 674, 677, 692, 693
Autoimmune diseases, 82
Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395
B
Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666
Bacterial vaginosis (BV), 27, 100, 102, 110, 132, 135, 151, 185, 186, 217, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 727, 729
Bacteriuria, asymptomatic, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276
Bacteroides, 269
Ballard Score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613
Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357, 392
Bax protein, 191
Bcl2 protein, 191
BEAM Trial, 300
Bechwith-Wiedermann syndrome, 164
Behavioral influences.
See also Nutrition,
maternal;
Physical activity;
Tobacco use
alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142
cultural context, 142
employment-related, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 149, 265
illicit drug use, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 626
infections, 94
racial/ethnic disparities and, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133
sexual activity, 99
socioeconomic disparities, 90, 93, 133, 134-135
Behavioral and socio-emotional outcomes, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396
Belgium, 167, 168, 470, 668, 669
Berendes, H., 605
β-adrenergic receptor agonists, 290-291, 295
β2-adrenergic receptor, 212, 215
β-hexachlorocyclohexane, 239
Beta-mimetic drugs, 291-292, 293, 294
Betamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 334
Biological mechanisms.
See also Parturition process;
Preterm premature rupture of membranes
in environmental toxicant exposures, 251-252
prenatal stress, 101, 110, 143-144, 179-180, 626
proteomic modifications, 219-221
Biophysical profile, 66
Biotin, 219
Birth certificates, 9, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81, 209
Birth defects, 150-151, 162, 163-164, 263, 315, 415, 422
Birth weight.
See also Low birth weight;
Very low birth weight
and costs of medical care, 705, 706-707
depression and, 109
gender differences, 63, 70, 77
geographic differences, 70
and gestational age, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242
interpregnancy interval and, 152, 153-154
and length of hospital stay, 407, 408, 710
methodological issues, 56-59, 62, 347, 386
misclassification, 79
neighborhood conditions and, 137-142
neurodevelopmental disabilities by, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 420-421
personal resources and, 119
population differences, 25, 63, 70
program eligibility based on, 461
as proxy for maturity, 4, 5, 8, 25, 31, 34, 36, 56-59, 62, 347, 386, 606
racial/ethnic disparities, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209
reporting, 9
socioeconomic disparities, 139-140
unintended pregnancy and, 120, 121
Blacks. See African Americans
Blood pressure, 102.
See also Hypertension, maternal
Body mass index, 80, 94, 95, 134, 151, 152
Born-Alive Infant Protection Act of 2001, 659-660
Botulinum Toxicum injections, 353
Brazillian cohort, 239
Bromodichloromethane, 244
Bronchodilators, 319
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), 202, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319-321, 324, 327, 331, 336, 343, 378-379, 390, 707
Budin, Pierre, 57
Building Interdisciplinary Careers in Women’s Health Program, 437
Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 33, 438, 446, 731
C
C-CPEP Trial, 274
C-reactive protein, 270
Cadmium, 248
Caffeine, 321
Calcium
channel blockers, 291, 292-293
mobilization, 171, 174, 175, 182, 251, 293
supplementation, 95
Calgranulins, 220
California, 234, 236, 403, 406, 407, 408, 417, 428, 646, 691, 692, 693, 697, 705
Canada, 26, 42, 43, 133, 233, 234, 240, 365-366, 384, 385, 647-648, 661, 690
Candida, 325
CARDIA study, 113
Cardiometabolic disease, 388-389
Cardiovascular development, 326
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular function, 101, 114, 321
Career development in clinical research.
See also Training clinical researchers
board certification, 439
faculty vitality, 442-443, 453
liability concerns and, 438-439, 440, 441
ob/gyn physician researchers, 7, 32, 438, 440-446
Caspase, 191
Catalase, 199
Cefetamet-pivoxil, 276
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 16, 33, 35, 165, 258, 415, 425, 657, 690
funding for preterm research, 17, 446, 447, 729-730
perinatal data collection, 10, 45, 79, 84
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 447
Central nervous system complications.
See also Cerebral palsy;
Cognitive impairment;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities;
Neurodevelopmental support;
Periventricular white matter disease
delivery method and, 332
germinal matrix injury, 333, 334
IVH, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 326, 331, 33-334, 336, 366, 379, 385
neuroimaging, 379
neuroprotective medications, 336
Cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379
Cerebral palsy (CP), 14, 32, 196, 199-200, 300, 320, 325, 335-336, 348, 350-353, 371, 372, 374, 378, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425, 675, 707
Cervical
cerclage, 273, 274, 275, 281-282
inflammation, 272
injury or abnormality, 189, 266
length, 189, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275, 281-282, 283, 286
ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181
scores, 268
Cesarean delivery, 43-44, 163, 181, 234, 332, 622, 623, 651-652, 653
Charge to committee, 3-4, 33, 52
Child abuse and neglect, 143, 463, 659
Child Abuse Protection and Treatments Act, 659, 665-666
Child Health and Developmental Studies of the San Francisco Bay Area, 238
Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, 670
China, 42, 50, 233, 234, 237, 248
Chlamydia trachomatis, 135, 270
Chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, 244
Chorioamnionitis, 82, 184, 185-186, 200, 205, 296, 335
Choriocarcinoma, 219
Chromosomal disorders, 69, 80, 162
Chronic lung disease (CLD). See Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
Chronological age, 61
Citrulline, 294
Classifications of preterm birth, 607-608
Clinical research on preterm birth.
See also Career development in clinical research;
Funding for clinical research and training;
Training clinical researchers
adolescent subjects, 448, 449, 681-682
informed consent, 448, 449, 680-681
institutional review boards, 448, 449
leadership challenges and needs, 8, 452-454
minimal risk vs no added risk, 448, 450-451, 680
multidisciplinary approach, 32, 452-453, 473-474
ob/gyn physician researcher workforce, 7, 32, 438-439, 440-446, 453-454
protections for subjects of, 448-451, 680-681
reimbursement for clinical services, 451-452, 453
Clinical Risk Index for Babies, 67
Co-amoxicillin-clavulanic acid treatment, 295, 296
Cocaine use, 24, 93-94, 134, 180, 191, 471, 631.
See also Drug abuse
Cognitive impairment
academic problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374
attention deficits, 14, 32, 348, 363, 370
auditory processing and discrimination, 369
Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357
birth weight and, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365
cystic PVL and, 335
development quotient, 355, 357
doxapram and, 321
economic costs of, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
executive function disorder, 370
fetal brain sparing and, 71
gestational age at birth and, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374
IQ scores, 71, 349, 354-363, 370, 371, 394, 425
language disorders, 14, 32, 328, 348, 363, 369-370, 374, 394
learning disabilities, 14, 32, 348, 363, 364-365, 369, 371, 374
mental retardation, 14, 32, 47, 348, 353, 355-356, 374, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
and special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 423-424, 717-719
steroid therapy and, 320
visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394
Collaborative Perinatal Project, 349
Colombia statistics and studies, 240, 343
Colony stimulating factors, 213
Colorado, 70
Community factors.
See also Neighborhood conditions
ethical issues, 654
methodological issues, 136, 144-146
modeling, 136, 139-140, 144-146
quality index, 145
racial/ethnic disparities, 136, 137, 138-139, 140
research needs, 141
social class disparities, 136, 139-141, 142, 233
Complications. See Neonatal complications of preterm birth
Computerized tomography, 333
Conduct disorders, 371
Conferences on preterm birth, 605
Congenital anomalies, 63, 64, 69, 163, 327, 328, 661, 663, 664, 669, 671-672
Congestive heart failure, 152
Connective tissue disorders, 189
Connexins
Contraction-associated proteins (CAPs), 171, 173, 174
Contractions. See Preterm labor;
Uterine
Coronary artery disease, 386
Corrected age, 61
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 102, 110, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215, 269, 270
Cortisol, 102, 110, 172, 174, 179, 185, 192, 194, 297, 340
Costs of preterm birth. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;
Societal costs of preterm birth
Croatia, 233
CRYO Trial, 384
Cultural factors.
See also Racial/ethnic disparities
neighborhood characteristics, 142
in risk behaviors, 142
and stress, 26, 36, 111-112, 142
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 171, 173, 174, 291
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate, 171, 294
Cyclooxygenase inhibitors, 293
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 174, 187
Cystine, 199
Cytokines, proinflammatory, 102, 132, 173, 174, 177, 179, 180, 184, 186, 187, 195, 205, 222, 252, 335
Czech Republic statistics and studies, 233, 234, 235
D
Data collection
cause of death, 82
gene-environment interactions, 227
recommendations, 6, 8-10, 73, 84-85, 480-482
vital records, 9, 43, 60, 78, 79-81, 209
Data reporting
ART-related outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157
birth weight, 9
infant outcomes, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157
international differences, 43, 636-637
LMP, 80
quality of vital records, 79-81
resuscitation at delivery, 73
standards, 79
vital statistics, 9-10, 60, 78, 79-83
DDT, 231, 237-239, 241, 251, 252
Decidual
membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175
Definitions of preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 224, 230, 606-609
Delayed childbearing, 154.
See also Maternal age
See also Cesarean delivery
Denmark, statistics and studies, 42, 96, 103, 104, 112, 155, 371, 385
Depression
maternal, 14, 103, 104, 107, 109, 111-112, 120, 380, 390
premature children, 371
Developmental disabilities. See Neurodevelopmental disabilities
Dexamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 320
Diabetes mellitus
fetal origins hypothesis, 387, 388
maternal, 44, 71, 80, 82, 148, 149, 150, 163, 263, 617, 622, 630-631
Diagnosis
preterm labor, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290;
see also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
Dichloroacetic acid, 244
Dichlorobromomethane, 244
Diet. See Nutrition, maternal
Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, 202
District of Columbia, 168
Domestic/personal violence, 110, 120, 135, 143
Doxapram, 321
Drug abuse, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 371, 471-472, 626
Dubowitz score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613
Dysmorphic syndrome, 69
E
Early intervention programs, 11, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 469-470, 718-719
Early and Periodic Screening Diagnosis and Treatment (EPSDT) program, 459
Earned Income Tax Credits, 471
Eclampsia, 655
Economic costs. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;
Societal costs of preterm birth
Education
costs of preterm birth, 11, 47, 400, 423-424, 460, 706, 717-719
early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469, 472
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 373
Educational attainment, 114, 130, 390, 622, 628-629
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, 209
Electroencephalography (EEG), 68
Electroretinography, 68
Embryonic chorionic gonadotropin, 187
Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act, 672
Emotional and affective states.
See also Anxiety;
Depression;
Prenatal stress, maternal
intrusive thought, 112
linkages to preterm birth, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111
Employment
occupational exposures to toxins, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250
physical demands of, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471
stress related to, 47, 97, 109-110, 135, 391
Endocrine pathways, 144, 179, 215
Endometrial cancer, 163
Endorphins, 340
Endotoxin, 200
Enterovirus, 82
Environmental Genome Project, 211
Environmental Protection Agency, 33
Environmental toxicants.
See also Air pollution exposures
agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252
animal studies, 251
biological mechanisms, 251-252
chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245
co-exposures, 231
environmental tobacco smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321
exposure assessment, 231-232, 237, 244, 253
gene interactions, 226
and gestational age at birth, 237
maternal age and, 246
metals and metalloids, 22, 230, 231, 232, 247-249, 252
occupational exposures, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250
paternal exposures, 240, 243, 249-250
racial/ethnic disparities, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251
residence as exposure proxy, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 250
socioeconomic disparities, 232-233, 240, 250
Epilepsy, 353
Erythromycin, 151, 275, 276, 277, 278, 296
Escherichia coli, 200
Estonia, 668
Estrogen receptor-alpha, 238
Estrogens, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215
Ethical issues
access to perinatal care, 673, 676-678
adolescents, 448, 449, 678, 681-682
Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666
brain death in pregnant women with periviable fetuses, 654-655
in decision making, 287, 645-652, 655
delivery room resuscitation, 658-659, 674-675
distributive justice of care, 678-679
end-of-life and LSMT practices, 645-652, 658-672
infertility treatments, 656-658
informed consent, 448, 449, 649-652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 659, 663, 668, 681
intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656
legal precedents, 649-651, 658-659
maternal-fetal conflicts, 287, 652-658
maternal illness, 655
professional guidelines, 655-656, 662, 667-668
racism or ethnic prejudice, 678
social and community context, 654
societal costs of preterm birth, 673-679
termination of pregnancy, 448, 681
viability threshold, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Etiologies of preterm birth.
See also Behavioral influences;
Community factors;
Gene-environment interactions;
Genetic susceptibility;
Medical and pregnancy conditions;
Psychosocial factors
animal models, 22
biological pathways, 21, 22, 37, 89, 143-144
environmental pollutants and, 22-23, 37
life course perspective, 37
modeling complex interactions, 25-26, 37, 141-142, 143, 144-147, 256-257, 272, 273
racial/ethnic disparities, 37, 77
research recommendations, 6, 21-23, 122-123, 255-256, 488-489
European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology, 166
Expression proteomics, 220
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, 198
Extremely low birth weight, 59, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 648, 650, 651, 658-662
Eye. See Ophthalmic impairment;
Visual processing and perceptual deficits
F
Family
costs of preterm birth, 3, 47, 371, 391, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712
early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469
history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209
impacts of premature infants on, 14, 47, 389-393
parental leave policies, 638
participation in medical decision making, 72, 287, 645-652, 655, 659, 660, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668
public policies affecting, 471
Faroe Islands, 96
Fas-caspase apoptosis pathway, 191
Fatty acids, long-chain, 24, 94, 96-97
Fenoterol, 291
Fentanyl, 340
Ferritin, 270
Fertility Clinic Success Rate and Certification Act of 1992, 165
Fetal
congenital abnormalities, 64, 163, 327, 328
death, 73, 74, 79, 81, 82, 152, 162, 186, 209, 279
developmental milestones, 317-318, 322, 326, 327, 328, 331-332
effects of tocolytics, 293
fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286
glucocorticoid effects, 297
growth, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;
see also Intrauterine growth restriction
HPA axis, 171-172, 179, 185, 188, 269
immune interactions with maternal system, 150, 324
intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656
lung development, 66, 70-71, 201-202, 317-318
membrane activation, 175
movement, 332
neurological development, 298, 331-332, 338-339
origins of adult disease, 386-389
red cell alloimmunization, 150
stress, 287
twin-to-twin transfusion sequence, 150
Fibronectins, 175, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286
Finland, 26, 42, 129, 133, 693, 697
First And Second Trimester Evaluation of Risk trial, 162
Flame retardants, 252
Fluconazole, 325
Fluorescent polarization, 66
Food and Drug Administration, 291, 447, 682
Foster care, 28
France, 42, 470, 605, 648, 668
Free radicals, 198-199, 204, 205, 333, 335
Functional Genomics and Proteomic Markers of Preterm Delivery and Their Variation by Race project, 729
Functional proteomics, 220
Funding for clinical research and training
Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 438, 446, 731
clinical revenues and, 451-452, 453
March of Dimes, 20, 33, 446, 730
NICHD, 437, 447, 725, 726, 727
NIH, 227, 436, 437, 438, 446, 447, 452, 453-454, 725-729
by professional associations, 437
Fungal infections, 325
G
Gamete intrafallopial transfer (GIFT), 155, 156, 162.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
Gamma-interferon (IFN-γ), 132, 213, 214, 222
Gap junctions, 171, 173, 174, 175, 177, 181, 293
Gardnerella vaginalis, 269
Gastroesophageal reflux, 321, 323-324
Gelatinase B, 175
Gender differences
behavioral outcomes, 371
growth outcomes, 382
infant mortality rate, 77
pulmonary morbidity, 77
Gene-environment interactions
epigenetic approaches, 218-219
goals of studies, 211, 216-217
infection/inflammation, 187, 211, 213-214, 217
methodological issues, 223-228
racial/ethnic disparities and, 132-133, 223
smoking, 217
toxic agents, 226
General Health Questionnaire, 107
Genetic susceptibility
analytical challenges, 224-228
candidate genes, 210, 212-216, 225
data management and integration, 227
family history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209
gene-gene interactions, 224
genetic association studies, 209-211, 226
haplotype analysis, 224
inflammation pathway, 212, 213-214
international comparisons, 209
maternal history of preterm labor/birth, 107, 149, 209
maternal vs. fetal genes, 226
phenotype definition, 224
population admixture, 223, 225-226
positional cloning, 210
and racial/ethnic disparities, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223
reporting and replication of results, 228
sample size and power, 227
single-gene candidates, 209, 211-212
twin studies, 209
uteroplacental pathway, 214-215
whole-genome scanning, 210
Genital tract infections. See Infection and inflammation, maternal
Geographic differences.
See also International comparisons;
individual states and countries
infant mortality rate, 627, 631, 634, 638
malpractice insurance, 450
in preterm birth, 40-41, 617, 618
racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639
Geographic information systems, 144
Geonomic and Proteomic Network for Premature Birth Research, 221
Germany, 42
Gestational age
fetal growth curves by, 58, 59, 63, 69-70
measurement, 9, 10, 38, 43, 59-65, 67-68, 70, 72, 78, 80, 83, 337, 609-614;
see also Measurement of maturity and stress effects, 104
Gestational age at birth.
See also Large for gestational age;
Small for gestational age
antibiotic therapy and, 278
ART and, 61
and birth defect–related preterm birth, 150
and birth weight, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242
categories, 58-59, 75, 79, 608
and cognitive impairment, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374
and complications of preterm birth, 3, 13-14, 76, 201-202, 314, 349
defining preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 606-609
environmental exposures, 237
interpregnancy interval, 153
and intrauterine infections, 184
and length of hospital stay, 407, 408
and lung development, 76, 201-202, 318, 319, 336
and management of care, 74, 76
maternal hypertension and, 617, 622
and medical costs, 401, 410-414, 428, 673, 674, 689, 694-695, 698-700, 704-705, 706-707, 711
and mortality, 3, 13, 31, 40, 72-74, 79, 287, 288, 314-315, 406, 412, 627, 630, 632-635
multiple gestations and, 75, 161-162, 622
and neurodevelopmental disabilities, 14, 349, 350-351, 352, 353, 366, 367, 372, 416, 419
and ophthalmic impairment, 366
as proxy for prematurity, 56-57, 59-65, 337, 609-614
serum eicosapentanoic acid levels and, 96
tobacco use and, 622
trends, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623
and survival, 32, 74, 288, 289, 290
viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Glucocorticoids, 172, 179-180, 203, 287, 297
Glucose metabolism, 99, 386, 387
Glutamic acid, 212
Glutathione, 199
Glutathione peroxidase, 199
Glycoprotein, 271
Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), 270, 272
Greece, 153
Growth
fetal, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;
see also Intrauterine growth restriction
premature infants, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382
Gsα regulatory proteins, 173
Guatemala, 42
H
Haloacetic acids, 244
Hammersmith hospital, 663
Haplotypes, 210
Harris, Lisa, 654
Health insurance
burden on private payers, 705-706
interconception care, 466
managed care reimbursement policies, 467
Medicaid and Medicare, 19, 20, 28, 404, 406, 417, 456-460, 462-463, 464-465, 466
reimbursement for clinical services in research, 451-452
and utilization of services, 638
Health Resources and Services Administration, 33, 447
Health Status Classification System for Preschool Children 383-384
Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project, 417
Hearing impairment, 14, 47, 328-329, 348, 367, 369-370, 371, 372, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
Hearing screening for newborns, 328-329, 370
HEDIS (Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set), 18-19, 467
HELLP syndrome, 655
Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor, 187
Heterogeneity of preterm population, 55, 68-76
late-term or near-term infants, 75-76
perinatal mortality at limit of viability, 72-74
small for gestational age, 69-70
Hexoprenaline, 291
High blood pressure, 163, 330.
See also Hypertension, maternal
High-risk pregnancy, 97, 108, 117
Hispanics/Latinos
birth certificate data, 81
BMI (maternal), 151
educational attainment, 130
environmental exposures, 240
infant mortality rate, 51
infertility, 158
inter- and intra-group variations, 129
interpregnancy interval, 153
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
neighborhood conditions, 140, 143
prenatal care, 64
rates of preterm birth, 5, 26, 49, 76, 105, 128, 129, 315, 679
risk of preterm birth, 151
social supports, 143
Histone deacetylases, 218
History of preterm labor or birth, 12, 22, 107, 149, 152, 209, 226, 265, 266, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278-279
Hopkins Symptom Checklist, 107
Human Genome Epidemiology workshop, 228
Human immunodeficiency virus, 325
Human Proteomics Organization, 221
Hungary, 668
Hurricane Katrina, 111
Hydatiform moles, 219
17-Hydroxylase, 173
Hyperbilirubinemia, 328
Hyperglycemia, 389
Hypertension, maternal
chronic, 70, 71, 148, 149, 150
and gestational age at birth, 617, 622
and indicated preterm birth, 149, 630-631
maternal age and, 44
Hypertension, neonatal, 333
Hyperthyroidism, 149
Hypocarbia, 198
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome, 198
Hypotension, 198, 200, 293, 299, 323, 326, 327, 333
Hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA), 101, 111, 170, 171-172, 177, 179, 180, 185, 188, 269
Hypoxia-ischemia, 198-199, 333
I
Illinois, 693
Immigrants, 458
Immune and inflammatory processes.
See also Infection and inflammation, maternal
environmental toxicants and, 251, 252
gene-environment interactions, 187
mechanical ventilation and, 205
Imprisonment, 105
In vitro fertilization (IVF), 16, 17, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
Indian Health Service, 447
Indicated preterm birth
alcohol use and, 93
fetal conditions and, 150
history of, 149
maternal age and, 45
racial/ethnic disparities, 77-78
rates, 608
risk factors, 149, 150, 262, 609
Individuals with Disabilities Educational Act, 395 n.1, 460
Indomethacin, 293, 295, 326, 334, 336
Induction of labor, 43
Infant Health and Development Program, 393-394
Infant mortality rate.
See also Neonatal mortality rates;
Perinatal mortality rates
data collection, 79
early intervention and, 82, 202
fungal infections, 325
gender differences, 77
geographic variations, 627, 631, 634, 638
gestational age at birth and, 3, 13, 31, 40, 72-74, 79, 287, 314-315, 406, 412, 627, 630, 632-635
intranational and international comparisons, 315-316
leading causes, 315
neuroprotective substances and, 336
prenatal care and, 465
racial/ethnic disparities, 76, 77, 78, 112, 113, 130, 315-316, 630, 638-639
regionalization and NICU access and, 21, 315, 468
smoking and, 90
trends, 31, 39-40, 77, 315, 351, 604, 605, 627, 630, 632-655
unintended pregnancy and, 120
Infant Toddler Quality of Life Questionnaire, 383
Infection and inflammation, maternal.
See also individual agents and diseases
animal models, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 195-196, 199-200
antibiotic treatment, 132, 151, 186, 196, 276-280, 625
biomarkers of preterm birth risk, 269, 271
and fetal death, 186
genetic factors, 187, 211, 213-214, 217, 220
group B streptococcus, 185, 191, 263, 276
immunomodulators, 196
and implantation errors, 188
intracervical inflammation, 282
intrauterine, 22, 82, 181, 184-186, 189, 191, 195-196, 199-200, 625-626
lifestyle factors and, 94
lower genital tract, 185-186, 187;
see also Bacterial vaginosis
and neonatal lung injury, 203, 205, 319, 325, 326, 336
neurodevelopmental effects, 325, 333, 378
nosocomial, 343
nutrition and, 95
and parturition process, 21, 22, 36, 135, 176, 179-180, 184-187, 195-196, 199-200, 213-214, 251, 252, 265, 325
periodontal, 110, 184, 186, 187, 265, 279-280
and preeclampsia, 186
prevalence, 184
and PWMD, 199-200, 317, 326, 335
racial/ethnic disparities and, 26, 36, 50-51, 100, 130, 132, 133, 278
sexual activity and, 99
sexually transmitted, 27, 110, 132, 133, 135, 325
socioeconomic disparities, 26-27, 135
in underweight women, 151
Infertility and subfecundity
causes, 158
defined, 154
endometrial cancer and, 163
racial/ethnic disparities in, 158
and risk of preterm birth, 16, 154, 163
Infertility treatments.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
delay in seeking, 158
insurance coverage, 158, 165, 167, 168
live births, 158
maternal age and, 154
and multiple gestations, 154, 159-168
racial/ethnic disparities in, 158
and risk of preterm birth, 155
socioeconomic disparities, 158
and spontaneous abortions, 158
utilization rates, 154
Informed consent, 448, 449, 649-652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 659, 663, 668, 681
Institute of Medicine, Roundtable on Environmental Health Sciences, Research, and Medicine, 32
Insulin growth factor binding protein-1, 220
Interagency Coordinating Council on Low Birth Weight and Preterm Birth, 446
Interleukin (IL)
IL-1, 174, 179, 184, 187-188, 191, 200, 213, 222
IL-6, 132, 179, 185, 200, 211, 212, 213, 222, 270, 271
IL-8, 174, 175, 181, 183, 185, 213, 271, 282
Intermountain Healthcare (IHC) Health Plans cohort, 404-410, 426
International comparisons
ART-related multiple gestations, 166-167
genetic susceptibility, 209
infant mortality rate, 315-316
interpregnancy interval, 153
life-sustaining medical treatment, 646, 647, 648, 661, 668-670, 673
low birth weight, 637
preterm birth rates, 26, 42-43
International HapMap Project, 208
Interpregnancy interval, 152-154, 466
Interstitial collagenase, 175
Interventions for premature infants. See Neonatal lung disease/injury;
Neurodevelopmental support;
Post-NICU discharge interventions
for cerebral palsy, 353
early intervention programs, 11, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 469-470, 718-719
economic costs, 11, 399, 400, 402, 422-423
effectiveness, 15, 353, 380, 393-396, 606, 690
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), 155, 156, 160, 164.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
Intraparenchyal hemorrhage (IPH), 333, 334, 379
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), 45, 163, 606
community environment and, 138
and fetal death, 82
maternal illness and, 148, 150
and maturation rate, 70-71, 80, 217
multiple gestations and, 63
and preterm birth, 262
smoking and, 217
socioeconomic disparities and, 60
stress and, 104, 107, 111, 138
unintended pregnancy and, 120
Intrauterine insemination, 16, 45, 157, 160
Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), neonatal, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 326, 331, 333-334, 336, 366, 379, 385
IQ scores, 71, 349, 354-363, 370, 371, 394, 425
Ireland, 42
Iron supplementation, 24, 94, 328
Israel, 239
J
Jaundice, 76
Juvenile justice system, 28
K
Kaiser Permanente Medical Care System, 406, 407
Kessel, H., 605
Krieger’s measures of racism, 113
L
Labor. See Parturition process;
Preterm labor
Lamellar body count, 66
Language disorders, 14, 32, 328, 348, 363, 369-370, 374, 394
Large for gestational age, 9, 58
Last menstrual period (LMP) for pregnancy dating, 60-62, 80
Lead exposure, 22, 141, 230, 231, 232, 247-248, 249, 252
Leapfrog Group, 468
Learning disabilities, 14, 32, 348, 363, 364-365, 369, 371, 374
Lecithin, 202
Lecithin/sphingomyelin (L/S) ratio, 66, 70
Leiomyomas, 158
Leukemia-inhibiting factor, 187
Liability issues, 34, 285, 438-439
Life-sustaining medical treatment.
See also Mechanical ventilation;
Neonatal intensive care units
accuracy of physician prognoses, 651-652, 662
attitudes of neonatologists, 666, 668
Baby Doe regulations, 659, 663, 665-666, 668
“best interests” standard, 645, 646, 648-649, 658, 666, 667, 669
counseling for parents, 646, 651, 662
delivery-room resuscitation, 72, 73, 74, 82, 647, 649, 650-651, 658-659, 660-662, 673-675
futility-of-care concept, 664, 665-666, 671-672
informed consent, 649-652, 659, 668
international attitudes and practices, 646, 647, 648, 661, 668-670, 673
legal precedents, 649-651, 658-659, 666
pain management and palliative care, 660, 662, 663, 669, 670-671, 672
parental wishes and rights, 649-652, 659, 660, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668
personhood legislation and, 659-660
professional guidelines, 662, 663, 667-668
proxy decision making, 645-648, 663
quality-of-life issues vs. value of life, 663, 664, 668, 669, 673
religious beliefs and, 661, 672
at viability threshold, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662
withholding and withdrawal, 662-672
Live births
data reporting, 9, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81-82, 157
infertility treatments and, 46-47, 157, 158, 159, 164, 165
Long-term care, 417, 418, 422, 459
Low birth weight, 120, 121, 137-142, 152, 153-154, 186, 278.
See also Birth weight
and adult disease risk, 386-389
antenatal maternal steroids and, 299, 651
family history, 22
international comparisons, 42-43, 315
IUGR and, 606
prior reports on, 34
trends, 604
Lung.
See also Asthma;
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia;
Fetal;
Neonatal lung disease/injury;
Respiratory distress syndrome;
Restrictive lung disease, maternal
phospholipid profile, 66
surfactant production, 202
Lymphotoxin-alpha (LTA), 212, 213
M
Macrosomia, 181
Magnesium sulfate, 291, 293, 294, 300, 652
Magnetic resonance imaging, 333
Malaria, 325
Malaysia, 42
Malpractice insurance, 438-439, 441, 450-452
March of Dimes, 20, 33, 446, 467, 690, 706
Basil O’Connor grants, 730
Prematurity Campaign, 34-35, 605-606
Marital status and preterm birth risk, 127-129, 135, 622, 628-629
Maryland, 168
Massachusetts, 168, 402, 422, 423, 660, 718
Maternal age
and ART, 16, 45, 46-47, 159, 166, 167
and cesarean delivery, 44
and environmental toxicants, 246
and indicated preterm deliveries, 45, 149
and infertility treatments, 154
and multiple gestations, 16, 45, 47, 159, 166
protective effect of marriage, 127, 128
and rehospitalization, 716
and risk of preterm birth, 125-127, 135, 149, 265, 627, 628-629
and tobacco use, 92
and trends in preterm birth, 44-45, 125-127, 606
and unintended pregnancy, 120
weathering hypothesis, 126
Maternal and Child Health Bureau, 447, 462-463
Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units (MFMU) Network Study, 271-272, 298, 726
Maternal stature, 80
Maternal weight.
See also Body mass index
duration of gestation and, 94
gain during pregnancy, 94, 151, 283
interpregnancy interval and, 154
prepregnancy, 93
and spontaneous preterm birth, 151-152, 188, 265
underweight, 109, 148, 151, 154, 188, 265, 276, 283
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), 174, 177, 178, 182-183, 185, 195, 271
MMP-1, 175, 183, 190, 191, 211, 215
MMP-9, 175, 183, 187-188, 190, 191, 211, 215
tissue inhibitors of (TIMP), 190, 191
Maturity/maturation.
See also Gestational age;
Measurement of maturity
adaptations to adverse intrauterine conditions, 70-71, 80, 188
and morbidity and mortality, 8, 56
racial/ethnic disparity in rate, 78
signaling mechanisms for labor, 171-172, 179, 188
Measurement of maturity
ART and, 61
birth weight as, 8, 25, 31, 34, 56-59, 62, 347
comparability of methods, 613-614, 635-636
definition of preterm birth and, 55, 57-59
fetal growth curves, 58, 59, 63, 69-70
gestational age as proxy, 56-57, 59-65, 337, 609-614
heterogeneity of preterm population, 69-76
LMP, 60-62, 63, 78, 80, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614
lungs, 66
and management of care, 8, 72-76, 83, 337
postnatal, 62, 67-68, 78, 80, 81, 611-613
public health implications, 79-81, 609-610
quality of vital records, 79-81
racial and ethnic disparities, 67-68, 76-78, 80, 612
research implications, 10, 76-83, 612-614
standards of practice, 80
ultrasound, 9, 10, 59, 62-65, 68-69, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 610-611, 612
validity and reliability, 610, 613
Mechanical ventilation, 202, 203-204, 205, 334, 340, 341, 342, 343, 403, 664-665, 666, 671-672, 710.
See also Life-sustaining medical treatment
Medicaid, 19, 20, 28, 404, 406, 417, 456-460, 462, 464-465, 466
Medical care costs of preterm birth, 47, 604-605
assistive devices, 418
birth to early childhood, 47, 399, 400, 403-415
birth weight or gestational age and, 401, 410-414, 428, 673, 674, 689, 694-695, 698-700, 704-705, 706-707, 711
burden on minorities, 705
categories of costs, 702, 704, 706
characterization and estimates, 707-719
co-morbid and resulting conditions, 11, 415, 707
content limitations of studies, 704-707
direct costs, 402, 415, 688, 707-717
disability-specific beyond early childhood, 415-422
geographic adjustment, 409-410, 426, 710
initial hospitalization, 10-11, 406-409, 428, 688, 691-695, 701-702, 704-706, 707-712
inpatient, 410-411, 412, 414, 417, 418
lengths of stay, 406-409, 709, 710, 711
long-term care, 417, 418, 422, 459
maternal, 11, 47, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 426, 704-705, 709, 711
outpatient, 411-412, 413, 414, 417, 422, 715, 717
post-discharge, 167, 696-700, 702-704, 706-707, 712-719
prescription medications, 418, 714
readmissions, 408, 706, 707, 714-717
therapy and rehabilitation, 418
time horizon of studies, 706
Medical and pregnancy conditions.
See also Genetic susceptibility;
Infection and inflammation, maternal;
Infertility treatments;
Maternal weight;
individual conditions
interpregnancy interval, 152-154
Meningitis, 325
Menstrual cycle, 60
Mental retardation, 14, 32, 47, 348, 353, 355-356, 374, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
Metabolomic technologies, 272
Metals and metalloids, 22, 230, 231, 232, 247-249, 252.
See also individual metals
Metaproterenol, 291
Methodological issues
aggregation bias, 130
analytical challenges, 136, 224-228
behavioral measures, 23-24, 90-91, 93
birth weight as measure of prematurity, 56-59, 62, 347, 386
community factors, 136, 144-146
confounders, 24, 90, 93, 94, 97, 99, 101, 106, 121, 133, 136, 151, 180, 224-225, 226, 233, 235, 239, 242, 635
data management and integration, 78, 227
diagnostic criteria, 14, 349, 701
ecological-level effects, 145, 231, 233, 253
exposure assessment, 231-232, 235, 239, 244, 245, 253
generalizability of findings, 690, 702
infant mortality rates, 315
international comparisons, 42, 43, 112, 612, 637-638
intervention research, 115, 116-118, 142
maternal vs. fetal genes, 226
measurement error, 130, 145, 231
multilevel studies, 141-142, 143, 144-147
multiple-gene testing, 225
nested data structures, 139
observational studies, 91, 95, 101-102, 115-116, 136
outcome measures, 14, 25, 36, 59, 349
phenotype for preterm birth, 224
population admixture, 223, 225-226
psychosocial “exposure” assessments, 97, 99, 101, 107, 109, 112, 114, 115
quality standards, 228
quasiexperimental designs, 107
recall/self-report, 90, 93, 114, 231, 245
reporting and replication of results, 228
sample selection criteria, 14, 118, 349, 377, 701
sample size and power, 101, 227, 342, 701
social exposure assessments, 144
terminological/linguistic, 4-5, 8, 36, 56, 99, 112
Methyl-binding domain proteins, 218
Metronidazole, 151, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280
Metropolitan Atlanta Developmental Disability Surveillance Program, 403
Mexican women, 49, 105, 129, 133
Mexico, 42
MFM Units Network Preterm Prediction study, 152
Michigan State University, 727
Miller, Nikolaus T., 57
Minnesota, 697
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) system, 181, 251
Mobiluncus, 269
Morphine, 340
Mortality rates.
See also Infant mortality rate;
Perinatal mortality clarifying, 81-83
intra- and international comparisons, 315-316
Moscow Foundling Hospital, 57
Müllerian duct abnormality, 149
Multiple gestations
ART-related, 16-17, 45-47, 135, 154, 157, 159-160, 161, 163-165, 424, 606
and delivery method, 163
and gestational age at birth, 75, 161-162, 622
live birth rates, 45, 46, 164-165
maternal age and, 44, 45, 47, 159
maternal and child risks, 163-164
measurement of maturity, 80
mycotoxin exposure and, 241
and neuromaturation, 71
ovulation promotion and, 16, 17, 45, 160-161
protective nutrients, 97
and rate of preterm birth, 45-46
reporting requirements, 45, 160
and risk of preterm birth, 12, 46, 47, 97, 159-168, 265, 266, 270, 627, 630-631
socioeconomic differences and, 135, 158
twin-to-twin transfusion sequence, 150
ultrasound detection, 64
and uterine overdistension, 181
Mycoplasma hominis, 99
Mycoplasma species, 269
Mycotoxins, 241
Myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), 171, 174, 175, 182, 291, 292
Myotonic dystrophy, 209
N
Narcotic abstinence syndrome, 341
National Center for Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, 447
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 447
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 447
National Center for Health Statistics, 9, 10, 48, 79, 80, 84, 126, 127, 131, 401, 447, 614
National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities, 447
National Center for Vital Statistics, 691
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 395-396
National Health Interview Survey, 417
Disability Supplement, 415, 417
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 253, 375
National Human Genome Research Institute, 208
National Human Research Protection Advisory Committee, 448
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 447
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, 447, 726
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 32-33, 35, 152, 221, 279
career development funding, 437, 447, 727, 728
Consensus Conference Panel, 298
MFMU Network Study, 271-272, 298, 300, 726
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 447
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, 447
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 447
National Institute on Drug Abuse, 447, 726
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 210-211, 447
National Institute of Mental Health, 447
National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, 35, 300, 349
National Institute of Nursing Research, 447
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 249
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 446, 447
Consensus Conference, 297
funding for preterm birth research, 227, 452-453, 725-729
Medical Scientist Training Program, 440
Neonatal Research Network studies, 728
Office of Research on Women’s Health, 33, 158
P grants, 729
R grants, 436, 437, 438, 453-454, 727, 728, 731
recommendations for, 7-8, 15, 17
Roadmap initiative, 7
trainee grants, 437, 727, 728-729
National Linked Birth Death Data Set, 678
National Medical Expenditure Survey, 417
National Survey of Family Growth, 158
National Vital Statistics System, 79
Necrotizing enterocolitis, 295, 296, 297, 298, 317, 322-323, 326, 670, 677
Neighborhood conditions adverse, 24-25, 37, 136, 137-142, 471
aggregations, 140
environmental toxicants, 233, 250
fixed effects models, 140
index of disadvantage, 141
individual-level interactions, 136, 140, 142-143, 147
random effects models, 140
social and cultural characteristics, 137, 142-143, 250
socioeconomic context, 139-141, 142
Neonatal complications of preterm birth.
See also Central nervous system complications;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities;
individual conditions
animal models, 196-200, 202, 203, 206
cardiovascular, 198, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 317, 320, 321, 323, 326-327, 331, 333
CNS, see Central nervous system complications
gastrointestinal, 76, 295, 296, 297, 298, 317, 320, 321, 322-324, 326, 327
gestational age and, 3, 13-14, 76, 201-202, 314, 349
iatrogenic, 349
infections and immune system, 76, 322-323, 324-326, 331, 334, 343, 422
late-onset problems, 331
near-term or late-preterm infants, 4, 14, 76, 336-337
ophthalmic, 67, 317, 326, 329-331
parenteral nutrition, 323
rehospitalization, 14, 202, 320, 380-381
respiratory, see Neonatal lung disease/injury
side effects of treatment, 300, 320, 322, 326, 328, 331, 334-335, 336
skin, 324
thermoregulation, 76, 336, 343
variations in rates, 56, 343-344
viability limit and, 324
Neonatal Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program (NIDCAP), 338, 342
Neonatal intensive care units (NICU).
See also Life-sustaining medical treatment
see also Medical care costs of preterm birth
family-centered care, 338, 339
neurodevelopmental support, 337-343
organizational and management structures, 468-469
outcomes, 19, 349, 351, 468, 673, 674
quality of care, 18, 19, 20, 67, 408, 409, 466, 469-469
regionalization, 20, 21, 315, 316-317, 467, 468, 469, 701, 702
utilization rate, 406
volume and level of care, 468
Neonatal lung disease/injury.
See also Respiratory distress syndrome
alveolarization disruption, 202-203
BPD/CLD, 202, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319-321, 324, 327, 331, 336, 343, 378-379, 390
corticosterid treatment, 203, 299, 320
gastrointestinal reflux and, 323-324
gestational age at birth and, 201-202, 319
infection/inflammation and, 203, 205, 319, 325, 326, 336
mechanical ventilation and, 202, 203-204, 205, 299, 320, 328, 343
and neurodevelopmental outcomes, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-379
positive end-expiratory pressure and oscillatory ventilation, 204, 319
pulmonary hypoplasia, 318
and reactive airway disease, 14, 32, 319, 323-324, 422
and SIDS, 321
surfactant deficiency, 66, 202, 204, 299, 318, 320
viral broncholitis, 320
Neonatal mortality rates, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 184, 292, 295, 314, 412, 677.
See also Infant mortality rate;
Perinatal mortality
Neonatal Research Network, 675, 726
NEOPAIN trial, 652
Netherlands, 163, 364, 383, 661, 668, 669, 670, 675
Neural tube defects, 269
Neurodevelopmental disabilities.
See also Central nervous system complications;
Cognitive impairment
antenatal maternal treatments, 299-300
behavioral and socio-emotional problems, 14, 32, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377
birth weight and, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 420-421
coordination disorders, 349-350, 353-354
early intervention, 15, 380, 393-396
economic costs of, 399, 403, 415-421
factors influencing outcomes, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-380
functional outcomes, 349, 369, 374-377
gestational age and, 14, 349, 350-351, 352, 353, 366, 367, 372, 416, 419
hearing impairment, 14, 47, 328-329, 348, 367, 369-370, 371, 372, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
lung disease/injury and, 318, 319, 320, 321
motor impairment, 14, 32, 47, 334, 335-336, 348-349, 350-354, 374, 375;
see also Cerebral palsy
physical therapy and medical interventions, 353
prevalence, 349, 415, 416, 417, 419, 420-421
sensorimotor integration problems, 354
special education costs, 47
treatment-related risks, 334-335
visual impairment, 14, 47, 329-331, 348, 353, 354, 366-369, 371, 372, 375, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
Neurodevelopmental support
breastfeeding, 338
clustered care, 339
positioning and handling, 337-338, 340-342
sensory input in NICU environment, 338-339
Neuroendocrine processes, stress-related, 179
Neurofibromatosis, 209
Neurological morbidity. See Central nervous system complications;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities
Neurotrophins, 214
Neutrophil collagenase, 175
Neutrophil elastase, 175
Nevada, 41
New Freedom Initiative, 463
New Jersey, 168, 423, 450, 675, 682
New Zealand, 679
Niacin, 219
Nitric oxide, 676
and parturition process, 171, 173, 175, 213
synthase, 294
6-Nitro-7-sulfamoylbenzo(f)quinoxaline-2,3-dione, 199
L-Nitro-arginine methylester, 175
Norway, 42, 240-241, 248, 249, 265, 647
Nutrition, maternal.
See also Maternal weight
access issues, 138
cultural context, 142
dietary composition, 24, 94-95, 134
education, 472
and epigenetic modifications, 219
measurement of diet, 94
multivitamin supplements, 94
and PPROM, 189
prepregnancy weight, 93
and risk of preterm birth, 265, 273
socioeconomic disparities, 26, 133, 134
starvation, 194
vitamins and minerals, 24, 94, 95-97, 121, 189, 219, 247, 274
Nutrition, neonatal, 203, 338, 343
Nylidrin, 291
O
Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, 158
Oligohydramnios, 293
Operation Ranch Hand, 250
Ophthalmic impairment
birth weight and, 366, 367, 368
cortical visual impairments, 331, 368
CP-related impairment, 353
gestational age and, 366
lens anterior vascular capsule, 67, 329
plus disease, 330
refractive disorders, 331, 366, 368, 376
Oral contraceptive use, 60
Orciprenaline, 291
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 710
Organophosphate pesticides, 239-240, 241
Otitis media, 328
Outcomes for premature infants.
See also Cognitive impairment;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities
accuracy of professional estimates of, 651-652
antibiotic therapy and, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280
behavioral and socio-emotional problems, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396
early intervention and, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 469-470
educational achievement, 365-366, 376, 377, 381, 394
family impacts, 389-393, 395-396
fetal-origins hypothesis, 386-389
functional, 349, 369, 374-377, 384, 392, 396
gestational age at birth and, 347-348
growth, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382, 387, 388
health, 3, 14, 32, 202, 320, 380-381, 386-389
maternal mental health and, 378, 380, 390
methodological issues, 14, 25, 36, 59, 347, 349, 377, 386-387, 396-397
multiple disabilities, 371-372
neonatal factors, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-379
prenatal and intrapartum predictors, 378
quality of care and, 409, 465, 631, 633, 677-678
reporting, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157
research recommendations, 13-16, 349, 378, 392-393, 430-431, 484-485
severity of disability and, 372-374, 390
social support and, 390
socioeconomic conditions and, 379-380, 396
treatment interventions, 12, 288-301
Ovulation hyperstimulation syndrome, 163
Ovulation promotion, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 162, 163, 167, 168, 258
Oxidative stress, 197, 204-205
Oxytocin
and parturition process, 170, 171, 172, 175, 178, 179, 215
receptor antagonists, 291, 293-294
receptors, 174, 177, 181, 215, 294
P
p53 protein, 191
Pancuronium, 334
Papiernik, Émile, 605
Parathyroid hormone-related peptide, 171
Parity, and risk of preterm birth, 628-629
Parturition process
animal models, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254
ART and, 177
Braxton-Hicks contractions, 171
cervical ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181
CRH and, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215
decidual and fetal membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175
decidual hemorrhage and, 17, 182-183
environmental toxicants and 251-252, 254
estrogens and, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215
gene-environment interactions and, 177, 187
implantation errors and, 187-188
infection and inflammation and, 21, 22, 36, 135, 176, 179-180, 184-187, 195-196, 199-200, 213-214, 251, 252, 265, 325
intrauterine vascular lesions and, 176-177
maternal health risk, 13
NIH research portfolio, 726-727
obesity and, 94
oxytocin and, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 215, 293
placental clock, 111, 172-173, 176, 177-181, 188
preterm pathogenesis, 12, 111, 176-189
progesterone and, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 215
prostaglandins and, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 195, 215, 251, 293
quiescence, 170, 171, 173, 292
research needs, 189
signaling mechanisms for labor, 68, 110, 171-173, 179, 185, 251
uterine contractility, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251
uterine overdistension and, 181
uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183, 214-215
Parvovirus infection, 82
Patent ductus arteriosus, 198, 293, 297, 326-327
Paternal
exposure to environmental toxicants, 240, 243, 249-250
perceptions of impacts, 391
Pennsylvania, 234, 450, 664, 696
Perhydroxyl, 204
Perinatal care.
See also Neonatal intensive care units
evidence-based selective referral, 20-21, 468
quality of, 19, 20, 31-32, 133, 469, 631, 633, 676
regionalization, 20, 316-317, 676
Perinatal mortality
antenatal maternal treatment and, 297, 298, 300
ART and, 657
gestational age and, 288
regionalization and NICU access and, 289, 292, 677-678
viability limit and, 73-74, 82, 630
Periodontal infections, 110, 184, 186, 187, 265, 279-280
Peritonitis, 323
Periventricular white matter disease (PWMD)
animal models, 196-197, 199-200
antenatal corticosteroid therapy and, 297
cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379
cerebral white matter lesions, 196, 197, 199-200
cerebrovascular regulatory impairment and, 198, 333, 335
hypoperfusion and, 197
incidence, 196
infection or inflammation and, 199-200, 317, 326, 335
and neurodevelopmental diabilities, 335-336
periventricular leukomalacia, 196-197, 199-200, 297, 298, 333, 335, 336, 366, 379
pre-OL vulnerability, 198-199, 335
and strabismus, 366
in ventilated premature infants, 198
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, 252
Personal resources, 118-120, 127
Personal Responsibility Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act, 462
PGDH, 174
PGE, 181
PGF2α, 174
PGHS, 174
PGHS-2, 181
Pharmacogenetics Research Network and Knowledge Base (PharmGKB), 227
Philippines, 153
Phosphatidylglycerol, 66
Phospholipase C, 182
Phthisis, 331
Physical activity
neonatal, 341
occupational demands, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471
Physiological severity measures, 66-67
Placenta previa, 163, 262, 265
Placental
abruption, 45, 70, 90, 150, 162-163, 182, 183, 189, 265
infarction, 70
separation, 175
Plasmin, 175
Platelet-activating factor, 205
Poland, 248
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 252
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 241-243, 251
Polyhydramnios, 181, 191, 209, 610
Porencephaly, 379
Post-NICU discharge interventions
Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395
early infant and childhood, 393-394
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 395-396
Post-term infants, 80
Post-traumatic stress disorder, 112
Postdate pregnancy, 263
Postpartum endometritis, 185
Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
biophysical, 267-269, 270, 272
Bishop scores, 267
cervical examination, 267, 268-269
fetal fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272
lower genital tract markers, 269, 270, 271, 272
multiple-marker approach, 271-273
Preeclampsia, 45, 70, 82, 148, 150, 162, 163, 186, 188, 219, 220, 221, 262, 263, 655
Pregnancy Outcomes in Community Health Study, 729
Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 105, 120
Premature rupture of membranes (PROM).
See also Preterm premature rupture of membranes
corticosteroid therapy, 297
defined, 182
emotional and affective factors, 111
lead exposure and, 247
nutrition and, 95
occupational fatigue and, 98
prolonged, 70
smoking and, 90
Prenatal care.
See also Neonatal intensive care units;
Perinatal care
access to, 9, 19, 26-27, 34, 36, 64, 133, 143, 273, 282, 316
focus of, 263
and preterm birth rate, 131, 139, 143, 265, 465, 633
prior reports on, 34
racial/ethnic disparities and, 26-27, 36, 64, 131, 133, 679
socioeconomic conditions and, 133, 135, 143
stress and, 181
time of initiation, 79, 81, 606
ultrasound standard, 9, 64, 83
Prenatal counseling, 651
Prenatal education, 101
Prenatal stress, maternal
biological responses, 101, 110, 144, 179-180, 626
catastrophic events, 24, 27, 105-106, 107, 111, 121, 180
chronic exposures, 24, 27, 105, 106-107, 110, 111, 121, 135, 137, 142, 180, 626
community context, 137, 142, 143-144
cultural considerations, 26, 36, 111-112, 142
defined, 177
developmental effects, 102
domestic/personal violence, 24, 110, 135
emotional components, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111, 121-122
gestational age and, 104
household strain, 110
immune and inflammatory processes, 101, 110, 144, 179-180
intervention trials, 101
life events, 24, 103, 104-105, 108, 112, 121, 132, 135, 181, 625
measuring, 146
methodological issues, 101, 103-104, 146, 180
and neurobehavioral indices, 102
neuroendocrine processes, 144, 179
observational studies, 101
occupational/work, 47, 97, 109-110, 135
physiologic reactivity, 111
and racial/ethnic disparities, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113-114, 130, 132, 133
racism and discrimination and, 24, 113-114, 123, 132, 136
research recommendations, 122-123
and risk of preterm birth, 265
socioeconomic conditions and, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 113, 135, 142
unintended pregnancy and, 120, 135
vulnerable time during pregnancy, 108
Preterm Birth Among Inner City Women:
Bacterial Vaginosis, Stressors and Race project, 729
See also Parturition process
antibiotic therapy, 273, 295-296
bed rest, 275
clinical evidence, 263
contraction monitoring, 274, 275, 276
diagnosis, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290
efficacy of interventions, 289
ethical issues, 287
genetic markers, 223
infections/inflammation and, 211, 295
racial/ethnic disparities, 77
and risk of preterm birth, 267-268, 286-287, 608
sexual activity and, 99
symptoms, 284
tocolytic agents and, 184, 273, 275, 276, 280, 285, 289, 290-295
twins, 275
Preterm Prediction Study, 93, 94, 271-272
Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), 608.
See also Premature rupture of membranes
antibiotic therapy and, 278, 296, 727
genetic susceptibility, 211-212, 223
potential mechanisms, 183, 190-191, 211
previous, 189
racial/ethnic disparities, 77-78, 211-212
risk factors, 189-190, 608-609
uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183
Prevention of preterm birth.
See also Treatment interventions
antibiotic therapy, 22, 132, 274, 275, 276-280
early detection and suppression of labor, 264, 273, 275-276
efficacy of interventions, 12, 264, 272-283, 633
medical interventions, 273-280
neighborhood interventions, 143
nonmedical interventions, 273, 274, 282-283
preconception care, 264, 278-279
progesterone supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281
research needs, 4
surgical interventions, 273, 281-282
Prevotella, 269
Progesterone
antagonist, 194
and parturition process, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 192
supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281, 727-728, 729-73
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, 143
Prolactin, 214
Prostacyclin (PGI2), 171
Prostaglandins
H2 synthase, 173
and parturition process, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 186, 191, 195, 251
Protease-activated receptors, 182
Proteinuria, 149
Psychosocial factors.
See also Prenatal stress, maternal
emotional response and affective states, 110-111, 121-122
individual-level perspective, 37, 89, 123
intendedness of pregnancy, 24, 118, 120-121, 123
personal resources, 118-120, 123
research recommendations, 122-123
social support, 115-118, 122, 136
violence, 24
Public health databases, 79-81
Public policies and programs.
See also individual programs
early intervention, 28, 469-470
economic burdens of preterm birth, 28, 456-472
financing health care, 28, 456-460, 462-63, 464-466, 470
income supports, 28, 456, 457, 459, 460-462, 470
options for improving outcomes, 464-472
pro-family, 471
quality-of-care initiatives, 466-469
research recommendations, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492
Pyelonephritis, 279
Q
Quality of care
managed care and, 467
measures of, 467
racial/ethnic disparities, 77
regionalization and, 20, 467-469, 676
Quality of life, 383-386, 428, 663, 668, 669
R
Racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639.
See also individual racial or ethnic groups
behavioral and social factors, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133
birth weight, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209
classification of racial and ethnic groups, 48, 221
community context, 136, 137, 138-139, 140
educational attainments and, 130
etiology of preterm birth, 77-78
exposure to environmental toxicants, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251
fetal maturation rate, 78
gene-environment interactions, 132-133, 223
genetic influences, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223
gestational age distributions at birth, 619
gestational age estimates, 67-68, 76-78, 80, 612
geographic differences, 638-639
infant mortality rates, 26, 36, 50-51, 76, 77, 78, 112, 113, 130, 315-316, 630, 638-639
infections, 26, 27, 36, 50-51, 100, 130, 132, 133, 278
infertility problems, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153
intra- and inter-group variations, 129, 146
life-course perspective, 37
marital status-related risks, 125, 127, 128
maternal-age-related risks, 126, 127, 128
measuring risk, 138
nativity and duration of residence and, 26, 129, 133, 140, 146, 628-629
psychosocial factors and, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 119, 132
quality of care, 77
rates of preterm birth, 4, 5, 12, 26-27, 36, 48-49, 76, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 120-121, 126, 130, 133, 465, 631
research recommendations, 6, 26-27, 48, 147, 158, 257, 490-491
risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 129-135, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629
sociodemographic risk factors, 125, 126, 129-133
socioeconomic disparities, 26, 51, 106-107, 112, 113, 114, 120-121, 125, 129, 130, 133-135, 147, 250
vital record reporting, 617
Racism and discrimination, 24, 36, 113-114, 132, 471, 678
RAND Corporation, 465
Reactive airway disease, 14, 32, 319, 323-324, 422
Reactive oxygen species, 191, 205
Recombinant human erythropoietin, 329, 336
Recommendations. See Research recommendations
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 665
Rehabilitation services, 459
Renal disorders, maternal, 149
Reporting. See Data reporting on preterm birth
Reproductive research. See Clinical research on preterm birth
Reproductive Scientist Development Program, 437
Research recommendations.
See also Clinical research on preterm birth;
Funding for clinical research and training
behavioral and psychosocial risk factors, 23-26, 122-123
causes of preterm birth, 255-258
clinical and health services research, 6, 12-21, 473-474, 482-488
data collection, 6, 8-10, 84-85, 480-482
delivery of health care, 19-21, 474, 488
diagnosis and treatment, 12-13, 308-309, 483-484
economic consequences, 6, 10-12, 431, 482
etiology of preterm birth, 6, 21-23, 188, 255-256, 488-489
evaluation of public programs and policies, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492
infertility treatments, 16-18, 257-258, 485-487
multidisciplinary research centers, 6, 7-8, 473-474, 479-480
multiple gestations, 16-18, 258, 485-487
multiple risk factors, 256-257, 489-490
outcomes of preterm birth, 13-16, 349, 430-431, 484-485
priorities, 6, 8-27, 478-479, 480-491
quality of care, 18-19, 474, 487
racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities, 6, 26-27, 48, 257, 490-491
Respiratory distress syndrome
antenatal maternal steroids and, 77, 296, 297, 298, 299-300, 318
biological mechanisms, 66, 202
gestational age at birth and, 76, 318, 336
inflammation and, 205
management practices and, 343
racial/ethnic disparities, 77, 318
respiratory support, 204, 296, 318-319, 403
surfactant therapy, 202, 204, 296, 299-300, 318, 690, 728
thyrotropin releasing hormone and, 300
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 320-321, 707
Restrictive lung disease, maternal, 149
Resuscitation at delivery, 72, 73, 74, 82, 647, 649, 650-651, 658-659, 673-675
Retinoblastoma, 164
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), 317, 326, 329-331, 366, 368, 375, 378, 384, 707
Retroplacental hematomas, 183
Rhode island, 168
Risk factors for preterm birth.
See also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
behavioral and psychosocial, 625-626
demographic, 625
for indicated preterm birth, 149, 150, 262
multifactoral nature of, 5, 37, 626
mutable, 626
sensitivity of biomarkers, 270
strongest factors, 12, 265-267
trends in preterm birth by, 624-627, 628-631, 632
Risk factors for rehospitalization, 716
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 467
S
Salbutamol, 291
Saturated phosphatidylcholine, 66
Scoring for Neonatal Acute Physiology, 67
Sepsis, neonatal, 76, 295, 296, 298, 323, 325, 330, 331, 334
Sexually transmitted infections, 27, 110, 132, 133, 135, 325
Shake test, 66
Sickle cell disease, 222
Single mothers, 127, 129, 135, 606, 617, 628-629
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 210, 211, 216, 224
Small for gestational age, 4, 36, 58-59, 69-70, 79, 97-98, 212, 315, 386, 387, 606, 607, 609, 637, 657
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, 209
SNP Consortium Ltd., 209
Social Security Administration, 461
Social support
and birth weight or fetal growth, 116, 143
conceptualizations, 115
defining and measuring, 115
emotional support, 115
information, 115
instrumental aid, 115
intervention research, 101, 115, 116-118
marital status and, 127
neighborhood environment and, 137, 143
observational studies, 115-116
and outcomes, 390
Societal costs of preterm birth.
See also Medical care costs of preterm birth
cognitive impairment, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses, 689-690
cost-of-illness methodology, 402-403, 688, 689
data sources and search strategies, 690-691
direct costs, 402, 415, 688, 707-717
early intervention services, 11, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 675
economic evaluation of preventive measures, 427-428
education, 11, 47, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 415, 417, 423-424, 456, 457, 675, 706, 717-719
family, 3, 47, 371, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712
indirect (household and labor market productivity), 11, 47, 399, 400, 402, 403, 415, 417, 425, 712, 713, 719, 720
international comparisons, 690, 692-699, 707, 710
per patient, 399, 691, 705, 707, 708, 710, 711-712
policy and research recommendations, 6, 10-12, 431, 482, 721-722
population description, 689-690
projections, 691
Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology, 165
Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, 33, 437
Society for Pediatric Research, 690
Sociodemographic risk factors.
See also Geographic differences;
Maternal age;
Racial/ethnic disparities;
Socioeconomic conditions
birth defects, 151
and impacts of preterm birth, 14-15
marital or cohabitation status, 127-129, 135, 628-629
Socioeconomic conditions
and behavioral factors, 90, 93, 133, 134-135
clustering of disadvantages, 138
community context, 139-141, 142, 233
confounding in behavioral and psychosocial studies, 90, 93, 94, 97, 98, 121, 133
and costs of preterm birth, 718
distributive justice issues, 678-679
exposure to environmental toxicants, 232-233, 240, 250
international comparisons, 133
mediators of preterm birth, 133-135
and multiple gestations, 135, 158
and nutrition, 94, 95, 133, 134
and outcomes of preterm birth, 379-380, 396
and personal resources, 119
prenatal care, 135
and racial/ethnic disparities, 51, 129, 130, 133-135, 147
and risk of preterm birth, 4, 5, 24, 26, 36, 51, 60, 98, 126, 133-135, 136, 470-471, 628-629
and stress, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 135, 142
Sodium nitroprusside, 175
Solvents, 249
South Africa, 42
Spain, 26, 42, 133, 239, 247-248
Special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 399, 400, 415, 417, 423-424, 458, 460, 673, 717-718
Special Education Expenditure Project, 424
Spina bifida, 150
Spontaneous preterm birth, defined, 36.
See also Parturition process
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), 19, 457, 458, 465
Stem cells, 327
Stress.
See also Prenatal stress, maternal
on families, 47
neonatal, 340
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 447
Sudan, 42
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 321
Sulindac, 293
Sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252
Superovulation therapies, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 258
Supplemental Security Income, 28, 457, 458, 459, 460-462
Survey of Income and Program Participation, 417, 425
Sweden
end-of-life practices, 668
health care policies, 26, 166-167, 168, 470, 677
preterm birth studies and statistics, 42, 110, 133, 209, 234, 248, 351, 353, 369, 376, 677
Switzerland, 42
Sympathoadrenal-medullary (SAM) system, 179
Syphilis, 325
Systemic lupus erythematosus, 148, 149, 150
T
Taiwan, 244
Tay-Sachs disease, 222
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, 28, 458, 459, 462, 470, 471
Termination of pregnancy
induced, 64, 73, 657, 660, 681
spontaneous abortion, 60, 81, 188
Terrorist attacks of 9/11, 105-106, 111
Th1-type cytokine, 188
Th2-type cytokines, 188
Theophylline, 321
Thompson, Tommy, 446
Thrombin receptor agonist peptide type 14, 191
Thrombophilias, 82
Thromboxane B2, 205
Thyroid disease, 82
Thyroxine, 336
Title V Maternal and Child Health programs, 28, 458, 462-469
Tobacco use
and birth weight, 90, 217, 283
confounding in environmental studies, 235
cultural context, 142
gene-smoking interaction, 217
and gestational age at birth, 622
and hypertension, 91
interventions, 101
and IUGR, 217
maternal age and, 92
as outcome of preterm birth, 371
prenatal stress and, 181
and preterm birth, 36, 90, 91-92, 130-131, 134, 136, 217, 266, 317, 622, 630-631
prevalence, 217
racial/ethnic disparities and, 27, 36, 92, 131, 317, 679
and rehospitalization risk, 716
second-hand smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321
socioeconomic conditions and, 90, 133, 134
unintended pregnancy and, 120
Tocolytic (labor-inhibiting) agents, 184, 273, 280, 290-295
Toll-like receptors, 187, 211, 214
Topiramate, 199
Toxics Release Inventory, 253
Toxoplasma, 325
Training clinical researchers
costs, 438
Transforming growth factor, 214
Treatment interventions.
See also Antibiotics;
Life-sustaining medical treatment
antenatal, to reduce neonatal morbidity, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318
CNI complications, 333-334, 336
informed decision making, 287-288, 289
maternal transfer, 12-13, 287, 289, 291, 292, 295, 300-301
off-label medicine use, 447-448
strategies and effectiveness, 12, 288-301
tocolytic drugs, 184, 273, 275, 276, 290-295
Trends in preterm birth
data reporting issues, 635-636
delivery method, 43-44, 622, 623
extremely low risk mothers, 622, 624
geographic differences, 40-41, 614-617, 618, 620-621, 630, 631
by gestational age, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623
hypertensive or diabetic mother, 617, 622
infant mortality rate, 39-40, 627, 630-631, 632-625
international comparisons, 42-43
marital status, 617
multiple births, 45-47, 617, 622, 623
racial/ethnic disparities, 614, 616, 617, 619-622, 631
rates, 2-3, 38, 406, 604, 614-617
by risk factor, 624-627, 628-631, 632
singleton, 39
Trichloroacetic acid, 244
Trichomonas vaginalis, 99, 277, 279
Tryptophan, 219
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), 132, 174, 179, 185, 191, 200, 205, 211, 212, 213-214, 217, 269, 271
U
Ultrasound
cervical evaluation, 268-269, 271, 281-282, 285
cranial, 68
gestational age measurement, 9, 10, 59, 62-65, 68-69, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 610-611, 612
safety, 65
standards of practice, 9, 64, 83
timing of, 80
training of personnel, 83, 611
weight estimates by, 70
Underweight women, 109, 148, 151, 154, 188
Unintended pregnancy, 24, 120-121, 135
United Arab Emirates, 153
United Kingdom, 42, 385, 394-395, 409, 376, 668, 675-676, 690, 692, 693, 696, 697, 712
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 42
University of California at San Francisco, 664
University of Chicago, 665, 672, 674
University of Michigan, 727
University of North Carolina, 661
Urban Institute, 463
Ureaplasma urealyticum, 185, 270, 276
Urinary tract infections
maternal, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276
neonatal, 325
U.S. Collaborative Perinatal Project, 238
U.S. Department of Education, 15
Office of Special Education Programs, 395
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 446, 448
U.S. National Maternal and Infant Health Survey, 209
U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 48
Utah Birth Defects Prevention Network, 150
Uterine
abnormality, 266
artery resistance, 102
contractility/contractions, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251, 267-268, 291
tumors, 158
Uterine-derived catecholestrogen, 187
Uteroplacental
V
Vaginal bleeding, 12, 62, 183, 191, 265
Vaginal microflora, 100
Vaginosis. See Bacterial vaginosis
Vascular epithelial growth factor, 187
Ventricular peritoneal (VP) shunt, 333-334
Vermont, 651
Vermont Oxford Network, 404, 408, 409, 468, 469
Very low birth weight, 21, 47, 59, 79, 105, 113, 114, 196, 202-203, 325, 403-404, 409, 423, 468, 646, 657
Viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394.
See also Ophthalmic impairment
Vital records, 43
Vitamin A, 319
W
Wayne State University, 727
Weight. See Maternal weight
West Africa, 240
Whites (non-Hispanic)
alcohol use, 27
birth certificate data, 81
birth weights, 77, 130, 140, 209, 679
BMI (maternal), 151
douching practices, 100
educational attainment, 130
estimates of gestational age in, 67-68
illicit drug use, 27
income and net worth, 146
infant mortality rate, 51, 130, 630
infections/inflammation, 27, 100, 132, 222
infertility, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153
IUGR, 107
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
multiple births, 617
neighborhood environment, 137, 138, 140, 143
prenatal care, 131
rate of preterm birth, 5, 26, 48, 76, 128, 130, 315, 614, 616, 617, 620-621, 622, 678, 679
risk of preterm birth, 209, 212, 265
WIC program, 470
Wisconsin, 242, 659, 665, 666, 682, 693
Women’s Reproductive Health Research program, 437
World Health Organization, 42, 57, 72, 383
Y
Yaffe, S., 605
Yeast infection, 277
Z
Zinc supplementation, 95
Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT), 155, 156.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies