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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Index

A

Advanced materials, 29, 74, 87

Air-quality standards, 88

Air transportation

energy efficiency improvements, 45

freight, 86

passenger, 86 n.8

Algal biodiesel, 75, 89

Alternative transportation fuels.

See also Biofuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels;

Corn ethanol;

Light-duty vehicles

barriers to deployment, 93-94

biochemical conversion, 67, 90-91, 93

carbon capture and storage, 4, 5, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73, 78, 94

carbon price, 38 n.1, 93

CO2 emissions, 4, 62, 71-73

coal liquefaction, 91

compressed natural gas, 94

conversion technologies, 90-92;

see also Biochemical;

Thermochemical costs, 66-67, 92-93

deployment scenarios, 93-94

dimethyl ether, 94

findings, 3-4, 62-67, 73

hydrogen, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94

infrastructure for distribution, 90, 93

methanol, 72, 94

panel report, 31, 81

petroleum substitution potential, 73

RD&D, 74-75

synthetic (GTL) diesel fuel, 94

American Electric Power, 100

American Iron and Steel Institute, 87

Appliances and electronics

energy savings, 41

information availability, 87-88

load management technologies, 84

Australia, 20

B

Battery technologies

costs, 85

deployment timeframe, 116

for LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85

performance capabilities, 85

R&D opportunities, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85

for T&D system storage, 6, 51, 61, 78

Behavior. See Consumer behavior

Biobutanol, 89

Biochemical conversion of fuel

cellulosic ethanol, 67, 90-91, 93

corn ethanol, 90, 91

costs, 90, 92-93

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

and greenhouse gases, 90

RD&D, 90

supply of fuel from, 90-91

transport and distribution challenges, 90

Biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89

Biofuels.

See also Biochemical conversion;

Biomass;

Biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Corn ethanol

advanced, 66

algal biodiesel, 75, 89

biobutanol, 89

from CO2 feedstocks, 74-75

consumption, 21, 37

hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4

potential of, 66, 73

R&D, 74-75

Biomass

carbon issues, 72

co-fed coal, see Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuel

consumption, 17, 18

cost of energy from, 58

on CRP lands, 89

electricity generation, see Biopower

food/feed crop displacement, 89

greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72

incentives for growers, 89-90

industrial use, 17

non-electricity applications, 32

supply, 32, 37, 66, 77, 89-90

sustainable production, 89

Biomass-to-liquid fuels.

See also Biochemical conversion

costs, 67, 91

greenhouse gas emissions, 71, 91

supply of fuel from, 37

thermochemical conversion, 91

Biopower

build time, 128

capacity, 128

carbon balance, 69

cost estimates, 57, 58, 126

environmental impacts, 101

feedstock supply, 32

landfill gas fuel, 97

municipal solid waste fuel, 89, 97

sources, 97

supply of electricity, 36, 51

technology description, 97

wood-based, 97

Biotechnology, 4

Brazil, 20

Buildings sector.

See also Appliances;

Commercial;

Residential

advanced technologies, 83-84

barriers to improving energy efficiency, 77

capital investment needs, 83

combined heat and power production, 83

conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83

consumption of energy, 2, 14, 83

cooling and heating systems, 14, 41, 47, 83

cost-effectiveness of improvements, 41

cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49

drivers for improving, 84

electricity consumption, 41, 42, 47

energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88

energy efficiency, 2, 38-39 n.1, 40-41, 42, 47-49, 87-88

findings, 2, 47-49

integrated (whole-building) approaches, 84

lighting, 47, 50, 83, 84

natural gas consumption, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 41, 48-49

payback period for technologies, 82

petroleum consumption, 17, 24

potential energy savings, 47-49, 50, 83

projected energy demand, 41, 42

regulatory policies, 87

retail price of energy, 47-48, 83

windows, 84

Bush (George H.W.), administration, 26

Bush (George W.), administration, 26

Business-as-usual reference case, xi, 36

alternative transportation fuels, 93-94

CO2 emissions, 2, 11

deployment of technologies, 93-94

energy efficiency improvement, 2

energy supply and consumption, 12, 36

fossil fuels, 11

industrial sector, 2

transportation sector, 2

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

C

Canada

natural gas exports, 15, 102-103

Cap and trade programs, 38 n.1

Carbon capture and storage (CCS).

See also Geologic storage of CO2

capture-ready plants, 3, 39, 51

CO2 compression, 69-70, 105, 106 n.13

costs, 52, 67, 91

and costs of electricity, 16

demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109

findings, 5, 39

and greenhouse gas emissions, 69, 72

importance, 30, 92

R&D, 107-108

retrofitting plants for, 3, 5, 51, 53-54, 69-70, 72, 104, 105

safety issues, 16

status, 16, 39

strategies, 74

thermochemical conversion of biofuels and, 74, 91-92, 94

Carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1.

See also Cap and trade;

Carbon price

Carbon dioxide emissions.

See also Carbon capture and storage;

Geologic storage of CO2;

Greenhouse gas emissions;

individual energy sources and sectors

alternative transportation fuels, 62, 64, 66

annual U.S. emissions, 68

cap and trade programs, 38 n.1

carbon prices, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93

by energy source, 72

negative, 69, 71, 72, 91

policies and regulations, 33, 52,

timeframe for reducing, 68, 71

trends, 11

Carbon dioxide feedstock, 75

Carbon dioxide injection for enhanced oil recovery, 91

Carbon price/taxes, 28, 38 n.1, 52, 93, 105

Carter administration, 26

Cellulosic ethanol

carbon capture and storage, 5, 65, 66

conversion technologies, 3, 67, 89, 90-91, 93

costs, 92-93, 125, 127

deployment, 92-93, 125, 127

economic competitiveness, 66, 67, 92-93

feedstock, 4

greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 66, 71-72

petroleum replacement potential, 3-4, 63, 66, 90, 91

production capacity, 90-91

RD&D, 6, 64, 74

supply potential, 63, 66, 129

Cement industry, 44, 86, 87

Chemical manufacturing, 86

China, 20, 77 n.19

Chlorofluorocarbons, 11 n.3

Clean Air Act, 26, 78

Clean Air Interstate Rule, 40

Climate change, 11 n.3, 25

Clinton administration, 26

Coal

air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

as alternative fuel source, 74,

see also Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid

carbon capture and storage, 3, 39, 51, 53, 58, 68, 69-70

CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 68, 69-70

co-fed biomass and, 91

consumption, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36

costs, 16, 52, 57, 58

electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 74

environmental impacts, 16, 52, 92

findings, 3

industry use, 14, 17, 24

infrastructure constraints, 13, 16, 23

integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

liquefaction, 91;

see also Coal-to-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels

oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104

prices, 16, 25, 59

production (domestic), 66

pulverized coal (PC) plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

RD&D, 6, 64, 74

reserves and resources, 16, 89, 92

retirement of plants, 69, 105

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

retrofitted/repowered plants with CCS, 53, 69-70, 71, 77

supercritical PC, 105

T&D system, 16

ultrasupercritical PC, 70, 74, 104-105, 128

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels

carbon capture and storage, 4, 65, 66, 73, 91-92, 94

conversion technologies, 3-4, 74, 91-92

costs, 67, 91, 92-93

demonstrations, 66

deployment, 93-94

environmental impacts, 4, 92

feedstock requirements, 66, 92

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 66, 71-72, 91-92

petroleum replacement potential, 4, 65, 66

production capacity, 5, 91, 92

siting of plants, 92

supply, 32, 37, 63-64, 65

Coal-to-liquid fuels

carbon capture and storage, 64, 65, 72, 73, 94

costs, 66, 67, 92-93

greenhouse gas emissions, 64, 72

supply, 37, 63-64, 65

Combined-heat-and-power systems (cogeneration), 44, 51, 86, 87, 88

Commercial buildings.

See also Lighting

consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37

energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49

energy management and control systems, 83-84

low-energy buildings, 84

Concentrating solar power

cooling systems, 84

costs, 58

dish-Stirling engine systems, 97

electricity generating capacity, 96

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

high-temperature chemical processing, 97, 101

optical materials, 97

parabolic troughs, 97

power towers, 97

technology description, 97

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), 89

Conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83

Consumer behavior

energy-efficient technologies, 49, 50, 79

Consumption. See Energy consumption

Context for the report

aspects not assessed, 31-33

challenges to sustainable transformation, 25-27

charge to the committee, 10, 30-33, 36

cost estimates, 32-33

current U.S. energy system, 11-25

panel reports, 31

strategy of the committee, 30-33

technology role, 27-30

timeframes, 30

Cooling systems, 14, 41, 47, 83.

See also Heating and cooling systems

Corn ethanol

CO2 emissions, 72

consumption, 17

costs, 67

plant build rates, 90-91, 127

production capacity, 90-91, 129

social and environmental concerns, 63, 89

sustainability, 89

Cost-effectiveness of energy-efficiency technologies, 2, 40-41, 49, 82

Costs.

See also specific sectors, resources, and technologies

before-tax discount rate, 126-127

conditional assumptions, 32-33

of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49

debt/equity, 126-127

externalities, 14 n.7, 29

feedstock and food costs, 121, 124-125

financing period, 122, 126-127

levelized cost of electricity, 55-60

life-cycle, 50, 56

limitations, 121, 124-125

methodologies for estimating, 32-33, 55-56, 120-131

overnight costs, 122, 126-127

plant life, 121, 126-127

plant maturity, 121, 124-125

plant size, 121, 124-125

reference scenario, 120

simultaneous expansion and modernization of T&D system, 61

site-dependent impacts, 57

source of, 120-121

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

source of supply estimates, 122, 126-127

uncertainties in estimates, 56, 59

underlying assumptions, 32

Critical technologies, 30

D

Delivered electricity, 42, 43

Demand. See Energy demand;

Electricity demand

Demand-side management, 88

smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118

Demonstrations. See Research, development, and demonstrations

Deployment of new technologies, general.

See also specific technologies and energy sources

accelerated, 6, 35, 37-38, 39, 76-79

barriers to, 60, 76-79, 87-88, 93-94

consumer resistance to, 35, 50

coupling energy-supply and supporting technologies, 78

“crash” effort, 35

economic effects on end-users, 35, 50

industrial capacity and personnel for, 77-78

options, 38-39

parallel tracks, 30, 57

portfolio approach, 68

readiness for, 38, 39

siting concerns, 57, 60

supply factors, 77-78

timeframes for, 35

turnover rate of infrastructure and, 77

Diesel fuel

biodiesel, 37, 62 n.17, 75, 89

supply, 37

Dimethyl ether, 94

E

Eastern Wind Integration and Transmission Study/Joint Coordinated System Planning Study, 100

Economic growth, 25

Economic recession, xii, 15, 77, 95

Electricity consumption

energy efficiency savings, 40-41

by sector, 41, 42, 47

Electricity demand

electrified vehicle fleet and, 4, 44-45

energy-efficiency technologies and, 32, 44-45

T&D system and, 27

Electricity generation.

See also Nuclear energy

age of baseload plants, 23

air-blown PC plants, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

baseload, 57, 58-59, 60

biomass, 51, 57, 58

carbon capture and storage, 78, 107-108

coal-fired plants, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 49, 51-52, 53, 57, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 74, 104-105

combined-heat and power plants, 51

competitiveness of technologies, 51, 59

consumption of liquid fuels, 37

costs, 55-60, 105-107

fossil fuel, 51, 58, 104-107

fuel costs, 57, 58-59

integrated gasification and combined cycle (IGCC) plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

intermittent, 57, 58-59

natural gas, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106

NGCC plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128

new plants, 42, 45, 105

oxyfuel plants, 70, 74, 104

petroleum, 51

portfolio approach, 4-5, 51, 107-108

renewable sources, 13, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59

retail price of electricity, 47-48, 49, 56, 100

siting of facilities, 57, 60

supply from new technologies or technology mixes, 49, 51-60

water use, 60

wholesale power markets, 56-57, 59

Electricity sector

barriers to improvement, 77

demand side technologies, 45, 60

energy efficiency improvements, 40-41

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 24, 68-69, 70, 73

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

Electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) systems

accommodating all generation and storage options, 51, 60, 61

advanced equipment and components, 116

barriers to deployment, 78, 117-118

benefits of modernization, 3, 60-61, 118

cascading failures and blackouts, 60

communications system, 116-117

costs of modernization, 58-59, 61

custom power, 116

customer motivation and involvement, 61

decision-support tools, 117

distribution system, 61

economic benefits, 115

electrified vehicle fleet and, 4

environmental benefits, 116

FACTS technology, 116

findings, 3, 60-61

grid visualization, 117

integrating intermittent/renewable resources integrated in, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98-99, 116, 118

investment barriers, 78

market accommodations, 61

problems, 13, 78

regional ownership and regulation, 78

regulatory and legislative barriers, 78

reliability measures, 61

security, 115

sensing and measurements, 116-117

smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118

storage, 6, 51, 61, 78

technologies, 116-117

transmission system, 60, 61

Electronics. See Appliances and electronics

Endangered Species Act, 40

Energy conservation, xiii, 33, 40 n.3, 61

Energy consumption.

See also Electricity consumption;

specific fuels

buildings sector, 2, 14, 83

business-as-usual reference case, 2, 21, 36-37

comparison of sectors, 17, 22, 36-37

current, 2, 17

energy efficiency technologies and, 2, 11-12

by fuel source, 17, 18, 21, 22, 36-37

historical, 19, 21

industry, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44

international comparison, 11-12, 20

per capita, 19, 20

per dollar of GDP, 19, 20

projected, 2, 19, 21, 36-37

total, 22

Energy costs. See Costs

Energy demand.

See also Electricity demand

economic conditions and, 15, 25

impacts of technology development, 32

potential energy sources relative to, 13

projected, 41, 42

Energy-efficient technologies.

See also Appliances;

Buildings;

Industrial;

Light-duty vehicles;

Lighting;

Transportation

advanced, 83-84

availability, 82

barriers to deployment, 6, 76-77, 78, 87-88

baseline/reference cases, 83

capital investment needs, 83

combined heat and power production, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88

conservation supply curves, 40, 82, 83

consumer behavior, 49, 50, 79

cost of conserved energy, 45-46, 47, 48-49

cost-effectiveness, 2, 40-41, 49, 82

and demand for electricity, 32, 44-45

drivers of, 84, 88

findings, 1-2, 3, 4, 40-49, 50

informational and education needs, 87-88

infrastructure considerations, 86, 88

integrated approaches, 84, 85

natural gas savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49

panel report, 31, 81

potential savings in energy, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88

price of energy and, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88

public policies and programs, 82, 86, 88

R&D, 6, 74, 85

rates of return, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83

regulations and standards, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88

societal benefits, 40

Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, 27, 45, 46, 62, 131

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

Energy Information Administration (EIA)

business-as-usual reference case, 2, 11, 12, 36, 45, 57, 82

energy consumption projections, 2, 40, 45

Energy intensity

defined, 11

trends, 11

Energy Policy Act of 2005, 27, 109 n.14, 113

Energy savings

energy efficiency improvements, 1-2, 25, 40-49, 50, 62, 82, 83, 84, 88

methods and assumptions, 130-131

public policies and, 88

Energy security, 1, 10, 12-13, 25-26, 55, 89, 92, 103

Energy sources.

See also Primary;

Useful

access issues, 12

flows of energy, 12

stored, 12

ENERGY STAR® program, 88

Energy storage.

See also Battery technologies

dispatchable, for T&D systems, 61, 78

fuel cells, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94

LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85

Energy supply.

See also individual energy sources

barriers to deployment of technologies, 77

business-as-usual reference case, 36-37

calculations, 126-129

by fuel source, 36-37

by production sector, 36-37

projected, 36-37

Energy-supply and end-use technologies

build time, 123, 128-129

competitiveness, 33

defined, 9 n.1

integrated assessment, 32

role in transforming energy system, 27-30, 32

Energy system. See U.S. energy system

Environmental impacts.

See also Carbon dioxide;

Greenhouse gas emissions

aesthetics, 102

challenges in transforming energy systems, 25-26, 88

land-use impacts, 101-102

nitrogen oxide emissions, xi, 11 n.3, 19

noise pollution, 102

policies and legislation, 26, 88

sulfur oxides, xi

water supply/pollution, 101

Ethanol.

See also Cellulosic ethanol;

Corn ethanol

greenhouse gas emissions, 72

supply, 37

European Union, 11, 20.

See also individual countries

Exports of energy, trends, 20.

See individual sources

F

Federal Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit, 95, 99, 101

Feedstocks. See Biomass;

Coal

Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93

Ford administration, 26

Fossil fuels.

See also Coal;

Natural gas;

Oil;

Petroleum

carbon capture and storage, 2

CO2 emissions, 11, 16, 25

consumption, 14

dependence on, 14-15, 25

economic importance, 14

electric power generation, 3, 16, 104-107

environmental and safety issues, 11, 16, 25-26, 108-109

findings, 2

prices, 2, 14, 28

resources and reserves, 13

supply and demand, 25

for transportation, 108

Freight transportation

air, 86

potential energy efficiency improvements, 45

rail, 86

truck transport, 85-86

Fuel-cell technologies, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 86, 94

Fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels

G

Gasification technologies

co-fed coal and biomass, 3-4, 91

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

integrated gasification combined cycle plants, 70, 74, 104, 106, 121, 124, 126, 128

Gasoline.

See also Light-duty vehicles;

Oil;

Petroleum

costs with and without carbon price, 93

Genetics, 74

Genomics, 74

Geoengineering, 29, 75

Geologic storage of CO2.

See also Carbon capture and storage

coal-bed, 70, 107

oil and gas reservoirs, 70, 91, 107

regulation, 92

saline aquifers, 70, 107

Geothermal power

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58

electricity generating capacity, 6, 13, 17, 57, 58, 97

enhanced geothermal systems, 6, 97

hydrothermal, 97, 128

R&D opportunities, 6, 75, 97

technology description, 97

Greenhouse gas emissions.

See also Carbon dioxide;

Methane;

specific sectors, technologies, and energy sources

defined, 11 n.3

and global warming, xi, 11 n.3, 29, 40

management, 29;

see also Carbon capture

portfolio approach to reducing, 68-73

timeframe for reducing, 68, 71, 73

transportation sector, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84

U.S. trends, 19

H

Heating and cooling systems

biomass, 32

cogeneration, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88

Home electronics. See Appliances and electronics

Homes. See Residential

Hydrocarbon fuels from biomass, 3-4

Hydrogen fuel

LDVs, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94

petroleum replacement potential, 94

Hydropower

consumption, 13, 17, 18

costs, 57, 97, 100

electricity generating capacity, 13, 18, 51, 52, 95, 98, 128

environmental impacts, 97

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

marine and hydrokinetic, 97, 128

potential, 95, 98

technology, 97

I

Imports of energy, trends, 20.

See also individual sources

Independent power producers, 95, 128

India, 20

Industrial sector

advanced materials, 87

barriers to improving, 88

biomass use, 17

cement, 44, 86, 87

chemical manufacturing, 86

coal use, 14, 17, 24

combined heat and power, 44, 86, 87

consumption of energy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 36-37, 44

crosscutting technologies, 87

fabrication processes and materials, 87

iron and steel, 43-44, 86, 87

natural gas use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37

on-demand manufacturing, 86

petroleum refining, 86, 87

petroleum use, 17, 24

policy and regulatory issues, 38-39 n.1

potential for energy savings, 2, 43-44, 82, 86-87

pulp and paper, 43-44, 86, 87

reference case, 44, 86

remanufacturing of used products, 87

return on investments, 82

sensors and control systems, 87

separation processes, 87

thermochemical conversion, 74

Informational and education needs

energy efficiency, 87-88

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

Infrastructure issues, 31.

See also Electricity transmission

energy-efficient technologies, 86, 88

International cooperation, 29

Investment in clean energy

asset renewal or replacement, 13, 78

barriers to deployment of technologies, 77, 78

capital constraints, 95

consumer resistance to, 49, 50, 79

cost-effectiveness, 40-41, 77

energy efficiency technologies, 82, 83

incentives for, 78

nuclear plants, 70-71

payback period, 82

price of fuel and, xii, 82

private-sector, 27, 77, 78

public sector, 78

renewable resources, 95

research, development, and demonstrations, 39, 74-76

returns on, 41, 43 n.6, 47, 49, 77, 78, 82, 83

risk perceptions, 71

tax credits, 38 n.1

T&D systems, 78

trends, 27

Iron and steel industry, 43-44, 86, 87

J

Japan

energy consumption, 11, 20

L

Legislation.

See also individual statutes

and development of new energy supplies, 40

energy, 27

environmental, 26-27, 40

piecemeal approach, 26

Light-duty vehicles.

See also Alternative liquid fuels

battery-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85

battery technology, 4, 5, 6, 76, 85

body designs, 84, 85

CAFE standards, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85

demand for electricity, 44-45

deployment scenarios, 85

diesel compression-ignition engines, 45, 84

electrification, 4, 44, 62, 67, 73

engine improvements, 84

environmental impacts of new technologies, 44, 73

EPA limit on truck weight, 46

fuel efficiency improvements, 3, 4, 40, 41, 44-46, 67, 73

gasoline hybrid-electric, 45, 85, 86

gasoline spark-ignition engines, 45, 84

greenhouse gas emissions, 5, 16, 73, 85

hydrogen fuel-cell, 4, 5, 6, 30, 44, 45, 67, 73, 74, 75, 84, 85, 94

nonpropulsion system improvements, 84, 85

petroleum consumption, 67, 89

plug-in hybrid-electric, 4, 45, 74, 78, 84, 85

potential for energy efficiency improvements, 44-46, 62, 84

power and size offsets, 40, 45, 46, 84, 85

price of gasoline, 84

production capability, 88

R&D, 6, 74, 85

tires, 84

transmission improvements, 84, 85

travel reductions, 46

Lighting

compact fluorescent lamps, 50

daylight, 84

energy savings, 47, 83

regulations and standards, 41

solid-state (light-emitting diodes), 83

Lime kilns, 87

Liquefied natural gas, 15

Liquid transportation fuels. See Alternative transportation fuels;

Biofuels;

Cellulosic ethanol;

Coal-and-biomass-to-liquid fuels;

Coal-to-liquid fuels;

Diesel;

Gasoline;

Petroleum

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

M

Malaysia, 20

Manhattan Project, 29

Methane

coal-bed, 103

emissions, 11, 19

hydrates, 75, 94

Methanol, 94

Methanol-to-gasoline technology, 67, 72

Molecular biology, 74

Municipal solid waste, 89, 97

N

National Environmental Policy Act, 26

National Science Foundation, 76

Natural gas.

See also Liquefied natural gas;

Methane

access issue, 12, 71, 103

age of power plants, 23

buildings sector, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37, 43, 48-49

carbon capture and storage, 58, 69, 70, 71

CO2 emissions, 3, 16, 24, 68, 69, 70, 71, 102

combined cycle (NGCC) plants, 23, 57-59, 69, 70, 105-106, 126, 128

competitiveness, 105-106

compressed, 94

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 37

costs, 48-49

economic importance, 15

electricity generation, 3, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 36, 51, 55, 57-58, 59, 68-69, 105-106

energy efficiency savings, 43, 45 n.8, 48-49

feedstock for fuel, 94

findings, 3

industrial use, 14, 15, 17, 24, 37

import dependence (potential), 3, 15, 16, 25, 37, 71, 103

new plants, 70

pipelines, 109

potential, 16

prices, 3, 15, 25, 48, 49, 57-58, 59, 71, 103

production (domestic), 15, 16, 37

reserves and resources, 2, 3, 15, 37, 102-103

retrofitted plants with CCS, 70, 71

shales, 15, 103, 105-106

single-cycle plants, 23

supply and demand, 103, 106

tight gas sands, 15, 103

transportation fuel, 37

New Source Performance Standards, 78

Nitrogen oxide emissions, 11 n.3, 19

Nixon administration, 26

Norway, 107

Nuclear energy

aging/retirement of plants, 13, 23, 53-54, 112

barriers to deployment, 113-114

capacity factor, 54

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22

costs, 57, 58, 113

demonstration needs and constraints, 55

downtime decreases, 110

economic barriers, 70-71, 113

electricity costs, 2

environmental impacts, 114-115

federal incentives, 39 n.2, 55, 58, 59

findings, 2, 3, 39, 70-71

greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 69, 70-71

improvements to existing plants, 52-53, 110

new plants, 3, 51, 53

operating license extensions, 53-55, 110, 112

potential for deployment, 3, 13, 70-71, 112-113

power uprates, 52-53, 110

proliferation risk, 111

public concerns, 113-114

refueling outages, 110

regulatory and legislative issues, 113

safety and security, 115

supply of electricity, 3, 14, 49, 51, 52-55, 114

technologies, 110-112;

see also Nuclear reactors

Nuclear fuel cycle.

See also Uranium

alternative, 111, 113

breeding, 111

closed, 111

disposal of spent fuel, 60

mining and milling impacts, 60

separations technologies, 111

Nuclear fusion, 29

Nuclear reactors

alternative designs, 111

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

costs, 70-71

demonstration of commercial viability, 5, 6, 68, 70-71

evolutionary designs, 2, 5, 6, 39, 49, 68, 70-71, 110, 112, 113, 115, 124

fast, 111

R&D opportunities, 6

Nuclear waste management, 60

high-level wastes, 115

interim storage, 115

Yucca Mountain high-level-waste storage, 115

O

Obama administration, 27, 41 n.4, 45 n.7, 62, 85 n.7

Oil.

See also Gasoline;

Petroleum

access issue, 12

CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 91

demand, 15

liquid fuel consumption, 62-65

political importance, 14-15

prices, xii, 15, 67

production (domestic), 14 n.8

reserves and resources, 13, 102

shales, 75, 102, 108, 109

P

Passenger transportation

air, 86 n.8

vehicular, see Light-duty vehicles

Petroleum.

See also Fossil fuels;

Oil

buildings sector, 17, 24

CO2 emissions, 16, 24, 72

consumption, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 62, 89, 102

demand, 15

dependence, xi, 25, 63, 67, 89

economic importance, 14

electricity generation, 36

energy efficiency improvements and, 67

import dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 62, 84, 89, 93

industrial sector, 17, 24

prices, 25

production rates (domestic), 3, 14, 62-63, 102

refining, 86, 87

replacement or reduction, 3, 14, 62-67, 73

transportation fuel, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108

Plutonium, 111

Policies and programs.

See also Legislation;

Regulations and standards;

individual statutes

barriers to adoption of technologies, 6, 76-77, 78

carbon controls, 78, 38 n.1

costs of, 45 n.8

energy efficiency, 82, 86, 88

energy savings estimates, 88

ENERGY STAR® program, 88

incentives and grants, 6, 38 n.1

RD&D, 88

state/utility, 88

tax credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101

Population

growth, 11-12, 25, 83

Potential energy sources

defined, 13

Power grid. See Electricity transmission and distribution systems

Price of energy

and energy-efficient technology adoption, 47-48, 82, 83, 84, 88

Primary energy sources, 12, 21, 22, 33

Princeton Environmental Institute, 124, 125

Production of energy, trends, 20.

See also individual sources

Public engagement, 29-30

Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act, 88

Pulp and paper industry, 43-44, 86, 87

PUREX, 111

R

Reagan administration, 26

Regulations and standards.

See also Legislation;

individual statutes

appliance efficiency standards, 88

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

building energy codes, 38-39 n.1, 40, 50, 88

CAFE, 28, 45 n.7, 46, 85

energy efficiency, 27, 28, 38-39 n.1, 40, 45, 46, 62, 78-79, 85, 87, 88

environmental, 26-27, 78, 88

performance-oriented, 6, 78

renewables portfolio standards, 28, 39 n.2, 51, 95

Remanufacturing of used products for resale, 87

Renewable energy.

See also Biopower;

Geothermal;

Hydropower;

Solar;

Wind

20% electricity generation, 13, 95, 98-99

competitiveness, 97-98

consumption of energy from, 21, 22

co-siting of different technologies, 98

costs, 33, 51, 99-100

deployment barriers, 12, 97-98, 101

development potential, 97-99

electricity generation capacity, 2, 31, 51, 94-96

environmental impacts, 101-102

findings, 2

greenhouse gas emissions, 16, 101

human and materials resource constraints, 101

integration in T&D systems, xiii, 3, 27, 34, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 98, 99, 101, 116, 118

land-use impacts, 101-102

non-electricity (distributed), 99-100

policy setting, 101

R&D, 98

resource base, 95-96

supply of electricity, 13, 51, 52

technology descriptions, 96-97

Research, development, and demonstrations (RD&D)

advanced materials, 76

alternative liquid fuels, 74-75

basic research, 75-76

battery technologies, 6, 30, 76, 79, 85

biofuels, 74-75, 90

biosciences, 74

CCS demonstrations, 5, 6, 39, 51-52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 91, 92, 107, 108-109

cellulosic ethanol demonstrations, 6, 64, 74, 90

climate-related, 75

CO2 recycling, 75

coal technologies, 6, 64, 74

energy efficiency, 6, 74, 85

evolutionary nuclear reactor demonstrations, 5, 6, 68, 70-71, 74

federal support, 76

geoengineering, 75

geothermal power, 75

investments in, 39, 74, 75-76

LDV technologies, 6, 74, 75

national effort, 28

natural gas from hydrates, 75

nuclear fuel cycle, 75

oil shale extraction technologies, 75

opportunities for, 6, 30, 73-76, 79, 85

portfolio approach, 5-6, 73

radioactive waste management, 75

solar photovoltaics, 75, 76

scale of demonstrations, 28

social science research, 75

urgency of, 5, 30, 71

wind energy, 75

Reserves.

See also individual energy sources

defined, 13

Residential buildings.

See also Appliances;

Buildings;

Lighting

consumption of energy, 17, 22, 36-37

energy efficiency savings, 40-41, 47-49

low-energy and zero-net-energy new homes, 84

rental units, 50, 87

solar power at point of use, 59, 83

Resources, defined, 13.

See also individual energy sources

S

Secondary energy source. See Electricity generation

Sensor development, 87

Separation processes and technologies

industry energy efficiency measures, 87, 111

PUREX, 111

Silicon, 96

Smart meters, 9 n.1, 45, 60, 118

Solar power, general

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58, 96

growth, 95

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

resource base, 96

Solar power, photovoltaic (PV)

competitiveness, 99-100

costs, 58, 99-100, 101

greenhouse gas emissions, 69

integration in power grid, 3

point-of-use (residential) installations, 59, 96

potential of, 13

R&D opportunities, 6, 59

silicon flat-plate arrays, 96

technology description, 96-97

thin-film technologies, 96-97

Solar power, thermal nonelectric.

See also Concentrating solar power

South Korea, 20

Supply of energy. See Energy supply

T

Taxes

barriers to technology deployment, 88

carbon, 38 n.1

credits, 38 n.1, 51, 95, 99, 101

Technology. See Critical technologies;

Energy-supply and end-use technologies;

Research, development, and demonstrations;

specific technologies

Thailand, 20

Thermochemical conversion

biomass-to-liquid fuel, 91

carbon capture and storage, 74, 91-92

coal-to-liquid fuel, 91, 92

co-fed biomass and coal, 3-4, 91-92

cost analysis, 91

Fischer-Tropsch process, 67, 72, 93

greenhouse gas emissions, 91-92

methanol-to-gasoline process, 67, 72, 93

RD&D, 74

supply of fuel from, 92

Transportation sector.

See also Air transportation;

Alternative transportation fuels;

Freight transportation;

Passenger transportation

energy efficiency, 2, 3, 4, 38-39 n.1, 40, 41, 43, 44-46, 62, 82, 84-86, 88

findings, 3, 4, 44-45

greenhouse gas emissions, 4, 5, 16, 73, 84, 108

infrastructure considerations, 86

intelligent systems, 86

liquid fuel consumption, 36-37, 62-65

petroleum dependence, 3, 14, 16, 17, 24, 62, 84, 89, 108

portfolio approach, 4, 5, 68, 71

potential for energy savings, 44-46, 62, 82, 84

public policies, 86

regulations, 38-39 n.1

system-level improvements, 86

U

Uranium

mining and milling, 60

resources and reserves, 13, 115

U.S. Department of Energy

20% wind electricity generation scenario, 13, 95, 98-99

Office of Science, 76

U.S. energy system.

See also individual resources

aging of, 13

critical characteristics, 11-13

current profile, 11-25

regional considerations, 31-32

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency vehicle size and weight limits, 46

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 113, 114 n.18

Useful energy sources, defined, 12

W

Windows, 84

Wind power

20% penetration scenarios, 13, 95, 98-99, 100

capacity, 98-99

consumption, by sector, 17

costs, 57, 58, 96, 99, 100, 101, 121, 126

deployment challenges, 60, 99, 101

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×

electricity generation capacity, 17, 27, 36, 51, 57, 95, 128

environmental impacts, 101

financing, 95

and greenhouse gas emissions, 69

integration in power grid, 3, 34, 57, 60, 81, 96, 99, 100, 101

manufacturing, materials, and labor requirements, 98

offshore, 36, 58, 100, 126

onshore, 36, 57, 58, 99, 100, 126

potential, 96, 99

public policies, 95, 99, 101

resource base, 96, 128

siting, 60, 101

storage and load management, 75, 99

technology description, 96

turbines, 95, 96, 100

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
×
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Research Council. 2009. America's Energy Future: Technology and Transformation: Summary Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/12710.
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Energy production and use touch our lives in countless ways. We are reminded of the cost of energy every time we fill up at the gas pump, pay an electricity bill, or purchase an airline ticket. Energy use also has important indirect impacts, not all of which are reflected in current energy prices: depletion of natural resources, degradation of the environment, and threats to national security arising from a growing dependence on geopolitically unstable regions for some of our energy supplies. These indirect impacts could increase in the future if the demand for energy rises faster than available energy supplies. Our nation's challenge is to develop an energy portfolio that reduces these impacts while providing sufficient and affordable energy supplies to sustain our future economic prosperity.

The United States has enormous economic and intellectual resources that can be brought to bear on these challenges through a sustained national effort in the decades ahead. America's Energy Future is intended to inform the development of wise energy policies by fostering a better understanding of technological options for increasing energy supplies and improving the efficiency of energy use. This summary edition of the book will also be a useful resource for professionals working in the energy industry or involved in advocacy and researchers and academics in energy-related fields of study.

America's Energy Future examines the deployment potential, costs, barriers, and impacts of energy supply and end-use technologies during the next two to three decades, including energy efficiency, alternative transportation fuels, renewable energy, fossil fuel energy, and nuclear energy, as well as technologies for improving the nation's electrical transmission and distribution systems.

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