[Page numbers followed by b, f, n, or t refer to boxed text, figure captions, notes, or tables, respectively.]
A
Achievement competency, academic performance and, 45–46
Adaptability and flexibility, 25, 55, 64, 89, 93, 138
After-school programs. See Informal learning environments
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 125–126
Antisocial behavior
cognitive skills to reduce, 22
educational outcomes, 45–47, 94
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 65
Apprenticeship teaching, 169–170
Argumentation skills, 6
learning goals for mathematics, 123–124
Assertiveness, 24
Assessing 21st century skills
in alignment with Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 13, 190
challenges to, 11–12, 149–150, 189–190
challenges to systemic implementation of interventions for deeper learning, 190–191, 193
classroom systems for, 179
evidence-based approach in, 144
intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 12, 148–149, 189
meaningful learning, 83
measurement of typical performance, 149–150
measures of cognitive competence, 22, 145–147
problem-solving skills, 145
to promote deeper learning, 165–166, 176–180, 188–190
psychometric analysis, 25–27, 189
qualities of measures for, 177
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9, 10, 181, 182
recommendations for development of Common Core Standards and science standards, 13, 192
recommendations for research, 12–13, 67, 192
recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 192–193
research needs, 12–13, 67, 189, 191
self-regulation skills, 95
student self-assessment, 178–179
study goals, 2
transfer of competencies, 144–145
Assessment, traditional
current approach, 11, 12, 145, 188–189
intelligence testing, 22
retention and recognition tests, 83
transfer tests, 83
See also Assessing 21st century skills
Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills, 16, 24
Attention competency
academic performance and, 45–46
educational outcomes, 94
role of, 94
Auditory perception, 28
B
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 125–126
Bloom, B. S., 21
Board games, for mathematics instruction, 120b
Bowling Alone (Putnam), 59
C
Cisco, 16
Civic engagement
definition, 59
educational attainment as predictive of, 5, 66
Cognitive competencies
achievement competency and, 45
component skills, 168
components of cognitive architecture, 75–76
deeper learning and, 74, 84–85
development of, to promote capacity for transfer, 8–9, 180–181
differential psychology, 22–23
domain-general knowledge in problem solving, 76–77
domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21
employment outcomes and, 49–50
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4, 37, 65–66
goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 133–135
health outcomes and, 58
for learning, 98
learning goals for mathematics, 122–125
models of human thinking and learning, 73–74
noncognitive determinants, 52
practice and feedback in, 79–82
to promote transfer, instructional design for, 159–173
stability over time, 23
strategies for coping with complexity, 104
structure of scientific knowledge, 128
successful interventions to promote deeper learning, 150–159
taxonomy of reflective latent variables, 27–28
trends in workplace demands, 54–56
types of intelligences, 23
See also Critical thinking skills; Problem-solving skills
Cognitive load theory, 98
Collaboration. See Teamwork and collaboration
College and career readiness, 1, 17, 35
Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics
anchor standards for reading, 109–111, 110f
articulation of 21st century competencies in, 11
assessment frameworks and methods, 13, 190
conceptual approach to English arts instruction, 108–111
evolution of mathematics standards, 113–117
goals for capacity to transfer knowledge, 6, 7, 141
implementation challenges, 189, 191
NRC science framework and, 6
promotion of deeper learning principles in, 6
promotion of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies in, 6
recommendations for assessment systems, 13
significance of, for future of education, 6, 101, 108
sociocultural perspective in, 74
study goals, 17
21st century skills in context of, 2, 102, 111–112, 114–115b, 122–124, 123f, 139–141, 189
Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, 117
Communication skills, 4, 16, 17, 24
as component of 21st century skills, 1–2
as element of interpersonal competence, 3, 59
goals of NRC science framework, 138
learning goals for mathematics, 123
trends in workplace demands, 54
Communities of practice, 95–96, 187
Competencies
developmental psychology taxonomy, 45
psychometric analysis, 25–27, 189
See also Cognitive competencies; Interpersonal competencies; Intrapersonal competencies
Complexity, 104
Conduct disorders, 45
Conflict resolution, 4
Congress
recommendations for, 14
in development of expertise, 8
as educational outcome factor, 38–39
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 65
health outcomes and, 58
Construction of meaning, 104–105
Costs
employer investment in employee training, 155
Council of Chief State School Officers, 2, 17, 101
as component of 21st century skills, 2
Critical thinking skills
four resources model of reading, 106–107
societal demand for, 1
See also Cognitive competencies
Crystallized intelligence, 23, 28
Curriculum
developmental considerations in design of, 186
divergent approaches to English arts instruction, 103–104
integrated, 7, 114–115b, 133–134
problem-solving and metacognitive strategies in, 170–171
to promote deeper learning, 7, 186
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181–182
recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 192–193
typical mathematics instruction, 113, 118
Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, 116
D
Deeper learning
case examples of learning environments for, 86–88, 120–122b, 134–135b
current understanding of, 82–83, 160b
definition, 1, 2–3, 5, 17, 74, 99
development of 21st century
competencies and, 8, 19, 70, 74, 99
early instruction to promote, 161
evidence-based guidelines for instruction to promote, 159–161
evidence of successful instructional intervention to promote, 150–159
formative assessment to promote, 165–166, 188–190
four resources model of reading, 106–108
goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111–112, 114–115b, 123f, 189
guided discovery and feedback to promote, 162–164
instructional features for, 7–9, 97–99
interpersonal processes in, 95–97
in mathematics instruction, 119–122
practice and feedback in, 79–82
priming student motivation for, 164–165
questioning techniques to promote, 162
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181
in science instruction, 129–131
systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 19, 185–186
teacher preparation for promoting, 186–188
through problem-based learning, 166–167
use of examples and cases to promote, 164
use of multiple and varied representations to promote, 9, 161–162, 163b, 181
See also Transfer of knowledge and skills
Department of Education, U.S., 13, 190
Depression, 45
Development
considerations in curriculum design for deeper learning, 186
early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47
intrapersonal and interpersonal domains, 24
Differential psychology, 22–23
Digital technology
cognitive demands, 3
societal demand for 21st century skills, 53–54
study goals, 2
See also Information and communications technology literacy
Discourse skills, 6
Disparities in adult outcomes, development of 21st century competencies to reduce, 13, 190, 192–193
Domain-general knowledge, 76–77
E
Edison, Thomas Alva, 16
Educational outcomes
correlations between competencies and behaviors in, 45–47
development of 21st century competencies to reduce disparities in, 13–14, 190, 192–193
early competencies and later achievement, 45–47
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4, 5, 37, 66, 99
evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 40–41t, 44t, 65–66
international comparison, 15–16
interpersonal processes in, 96
significance of 21st century skills in, 2, 18–19
socioeconomic factors, 16
study goals, 17
transfer in the labor market and, 61–64
Education and training of teachers, 186–188
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 14, 193
Emotional functioning
instructional design principles for enhancing, 175
intrapersonal competency in, 3, 21
successful interventions to promote competence in, 151–152, 153–154
Engaging Schools: Fostering High School Students’ Motivation to Learn, 119
English language arts
deeper learning goals, Common Core Standards and, 111–112, 114–115b
development of Common Core Standards for, 101–102
divergent approaches to instruction, 102–106
instructional interventions promoting intrapersonal competencies, 151
integrated approach to instruction in Common Core Standards, 108–109, 114b
See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics; Reading skills
Essential processing, 98–99, 163b
Examples and cases, instructional use of, 9, 164, 181
Expertise
current understanding of, 78–79
development of
problem-solving strategies and, 77
self-regulated learning in, 93
transfer of knowledge and, 82, 85–86, 97–98
Externalizing behaviors, 45
Extraneous processing, 98–99, 163b
Extroversion, 29
F
Facebook, 53
Feedback
in formative assessment, 177–178
importance of, in learning, 80–82, 147, 171
to promote problem solving and metacognition, 10, 182
self-regulated learning and, 93
Fifth Dimension, 154
Forecasting ability, assessment of, 145
Formative assessment, 10, 165–166, 176, 177–180, 182, 188
Formative latent variable, 26, 27, 30
Four resources model, 106–108, 109–111
Framework for K-12 Science Education, A (NRC science framework), 18
articulation of 21st century competencies in, 11
assessment frameworks and methods, 13, 190
cognitive competency goals in, 136–137
Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics, 6
core disciplinary ideas, 132
crosscutting concepts, 132–133
deeper learning goals in, 130–132
goals for capacity to transfer knowledge, 6, 7, 141
goals for science instruction, 128–129
historical evolution of standards, 125–126
implementation challenges, 189, 191
interpersonal competencies in, 138
intrapersonal competencies in, 137–138
promotion of deeper learning principles in, 6
promotion of intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies in, 6
recommendations for assessment systems, 13
significance of, for future of education, 6, 101
sociocultural perspective in, 74
study goals, 17
21st century skills in context of, 2, 102, 131, 133–134, 136–141, 136f, 189
FrameWorks Institute, 18
G
Generative processing, 89, 98–99, 108, 163b
H
Handbook of Educational Psychology, 159–161
Handbook of Reading Research, 105
Health outcomes
cognitive competency and, 58
educational attainment and, 56–57, 66
evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 43, 65
personality traits and, 58
Hewlett Foundation, 18, 24, 131
How Students Learn: History, Mathematics, and Science in the Classroom, 121b
I
Informal learning environments
exhibit design to promote deeper learning, 162, 164, 165
priming student motivation in, 165
successful interventions to promote deeper learning, 153–154
Information and communications technology literacy, societal demand for, 24, 53–56
Information processing model memory, 75–76, 75f
Initiation, 93
Insight, 72
Institute of Education Science, 159–161
Intel, 16
Intellectual openness, 89
Intelligence
developmental stability, 23–24
Internalizing behaviors, 45
Internet and social media
utilization trends, 53
See also Information and communications technology literacy
Interpersonal competencies
assessment challenges, 12, 149, 189
assessment measures, 22
current assessment practices, 148–149
developmental stability, 23, 24
development of, to promote capacity for transfer of knowledge, 8, 180–181
domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21, 22
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 65, 66
in goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111–112, 123–125, 138, 140
instructional design principles, 173–175
learning goals for mathematics, 125
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 10–11, 182–183
self-regulated learning and, 93, 97
significance of, in learning, 22
Intrapersonal competencies
assessment challenges, 12, 149, 189
assessment measures, 22
current assessment practices, 148–149
for deeper learning, 99
developmental stability, 23, 24
development of, to promote capacity for transfer of knowledge, 8, 180–181
domain of 21st century skills, 3, 4, 21–22
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 65, 66
in goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 111–112, 123–125, 135–137, 140
instructional design principles, 173–175
learning goals for mathematics, 125
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 10–11, 182–183
significance of, in learning, 22
successful interventions to promote, 150–159
teaching practices to support deeper learning, 7–8
See also Motivation; Self-regulation
J
Jangle fallacy, 25
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, 16–17
L
Learning 21st century skills
formative assessment to promote, 176
problem-based approach, 166–167
role of beliefs and motivation in, 89–91
See also Deeper learning; Teaching 21st century skills and competencies
Learning theory
memory processes in, 98
sociocultural perspective, 73–74, 95, 99
strong and weak problem-solving strategies, 76–77
Lexical hypothesis, 28
Long-term memory, 76
M
Mathematics
attention competency and, 94
case example of environment for deeper learning, 86–88, 150–151
deeper learning expectations in, 119–122
early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47
evolution of Common Core Standards, 113–117
international comparison of student performance, 15–16
learning goals for intrapersonal and interpersonal competency, 125
recommendations for pedagogical reform, 118–119
research perspectives on teaching for understanding, 117–119
study goals, 17
typical instructional approach, 113, 118
See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics
Memory
for expertise, 79
information processing model, 75–76, 75f
learning theory, 98
long-term, 76
in metacognitive skills, 92
schematic knowledge, 78
taxonomy of cognitive abilities, 28
types of learning outcomes, 83, 83t
Mental health, academic performance and, 45–46
Metacognition
design principles for teaching, 168–172, 172b
mathematics instruction to promote, 122
recommendations for instruction to enhance, 10, 182
significance of, in learning, 8, 91–92
Microsoft, 16
Model building skills, 145
Monitoring and reflecting, 145, 170
Motivation
in Common Core Standards framework, 111–112
as component of 21st century skills, 1–2, 17
as determinant of intelligence, 23–24
social dimensions of, 97
Multimedia learning, 98, 161–162, 163b
N
National Council of Bar Examiners, 145–146
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 116
National Governors Association, 2, 17, 101
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 105
National Science Education Standards, 126–127, 132
National Science Foundation, 17
Nellie Mae Education Foundation, 17
Neuroticism
definition, 29
developmental patterns, 24
educational outcomes and, 38–39
employment outcomes and, 51
health outcomes and, 58
interpersonal relationship success and, 59
21st century competencies aligned with, 89
Next generation learning, 1, 17
Next Generation Science Standards, 13, 101, 190
No Child Left Behind, 116, 129
Nonverbal communication skills
NRC science framework. See Framework for K-12 Science Education, A
O
Occupational Information Network, 25
O*NET content model, 30, 31t, 35–36
Openness to experience, 29, 30, 38–39, 89
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 15–16, 23
Out-of-school programs. See Informal learning environments
P
Packet Tracer, 178
Parenting interventions to promote 21st century competencies, 154–155
Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 16, 131
Pearson Foundation, 17
Peer modeling, 165
Persistence, 1–2, 17, 125, 140
Personality theory
determinants of relationship success, 59
determinants of school success, 38–39, 44t
developmental stability, 23–24, 38
in differential psychology, 22–24
evidence of linkage to adult outcomes, 65–66
Five Factor model, 24, 28–30, 38, 50–51
predictors of health outcomes, 58
taxonomy of reflective latent variables, 28–30
Positive Action Program, 153
Power law of practice, 80
Practice-based professional education, 186–187
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, 105
Priming student motivation, 10, 164–165, 181
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, 116
Problem-based learning, 166–167
Problem-solving skills
assessment, 145
definition, 167
design principles for teaching, 167–172, 172b
instructional features of deep learning for, 8–9
learning goals for mathematics, 123–125
recommendations for instruction to enhance, 10, 182
societal demand for, 1
strong methods, 77
See also Cognitive competencies
Procedural information, 76
Professional development, teacher
recommendations for systemic implementation of interventions to promote 21st century skills, 13–14, 193
reforms to support instruction for deeper learning, 186–188, 191
Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics, 118
Programme for International Student Assessment, 15–16, 145, 146, 149
Prompting, in problem-solving instruction, 169
Putnam, Robert, 59
Q
Questioning techniques, 162
R
Raikes Foundation, 17
Reaction time, 28
Reading skills
anchor standards in Common Core Standards, 109–111, 110f
attention competency and, 94
divergent approaches to instruction, 102–103
early academic competencies and later academic achievement, 45–47
four resources model, 106–107, 109–111
integrated approach to instruction in Common Core Standards, 108–109
international comparison of student performance, 15–16
study goals, 17
See also Common Core State Standards for English language arts and mathematics; English language arts
Recommendations
for design of instructional practices for deeper learning, 9–10, 181
for development of assessments of 21st century competencies, 12–13, 192
for research into instruction targeted to transferable intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 11, 182–183
for research into linkage between 21st century skills and adult outcomes, 5, 66–67
for research into transfer of knowledge and skills, 7, 141
Reflective latent variables
clusters of 21st century competencies, 35
cognitive abilities taxonomy, 27–28
definition, 26
Representations of concepts and tasks, 9, 98, 128, 133–134, 161–162, 181
Research needs
assessment of 21st century competencies, 12–13, 189, 191, 192
curriculum to develop 21st competencies, 186, 191
instruction targeted to transferable intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, 10–11, 182–183
linkage between 21st century skills and adult outcomes, 5, 66–67
self-regulated learning, 93–94
self-regulation, 95
transfer of knowledge within and across disciplines, 7, 141
Retrieval ability, 28
S
Science and engineering instruction
case example of deeper learning in, 134–135b
content and process approaches, 126–127
development of sophisticated scientific knowledge in, 128
evolution of national standards for education in, 125–126
hands-on activities in, 126–127
inquiry in, 127
in integrated curriculum, 132–135
international comparison of student performance, 15–16
science practices goals for, 130–131
strands of science proficiency, 133–135
study goals, 17
teacher preparation for, 188
See also Framework for K-12 Science Education, A (NRC science framework)
Science for All Americans, 126
Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 25, 35
Seeds of Science/Roots of Reading, 114b
Self-affirmation theory, 91
Self-direction, 93
Self-efficacy beliefs, 30, 51, 89–91, 139–140, 164–165
Self-evaluation, 30, 89, 178–179
Self-regulation
academic and social outcomes predicted by, 94–95
assessment, 95
defining features of, 21–22, 94
instructional interventions based on, 93
learning goals for mathematics, 125
overlap with 21st century skills, 35, 93, 140
social dimensions of, 97
successful interventions to promote, 152–153
Semantic information, 76
Skill acquisition curves, 80–82, 81f
Social and cultural competency
determinants of success in personal relationships, 58–59
role of social relationships in learning, 95–96
successful interventions to promote, 151–152, 153–154
as 21st century competency, 24, 35
See also Interpersonal competencies
Sociocultural models of learning, 73–74, 95, 99
Socioeconomic disparities
academic performance and, 16
civic engagement and, 60
State assessments, 11, 111, 189, 191
Stereotype threat, 91
Student centered learning, 1, 17, 103
Study skills, 35
Stupski Foundation, 17
Summative assessment, 176, 188–189
Susan Crown Enchange Fund, 17
Systems thinking, 123
T
Taking Science to School, 128, 133
Teaching 21st century skills and competencies
case example of learning environment for, 86–88
challenges to systemic implementation, 190–191, 193
cognitive competencies to promote transfer, instructional design for, 159–173
early intervention, 161
implications of sociocultural model of human learning, 73–74
instructional features for deeper learning, 7–9, 97–99
intrapersonal and interpersonal domain, instructional design principles for, 173–175
problem-solving and metacognitive strategies, 167–172
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181–182
resources for implementation, 7
role of assessment in, 176–180
successful intervention to promote deeper learning, 150–153
teacher assessment skills for, 12
teacher preparation for, 186–188
use of examples and cases, 9, 164, 181
Teamwork and collaboration
component skills, 95
in mathematics instruction, 118–119
in science education, 138
self-regulated learning and, 93
as 21st century skills, 1–2, 4, 16, 17, 24
Tools of the Mind, 152
Transfer of knowledge and skills, 19, 143
assessment challenges, 144–145
assessment goals, 144
challenges to systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 190–191, 193
as characteristic of 21st century skills, 23, 74
cognitive competencies for, instructional design for enhancing, 159–173
current understanding, 70–72, 82, 99
definition, 15
delineation of learning goals for instruction in, 144
development of 21st century competencies to promote, 8–9, 180–181
domain-general knowledge for, 76–77
domain-specific teaching for, 170, 172–173
educational attainment and capacity for, 5
as goal of Common Core Standards and NRC framework, 6, 7, 141
instructional challenges, 98
labor market outcomes of educational attainment, 61–64
as product of deeper learning, 5–6, 8, 69–70, 99
recommendations for research, 7, 141
role of beliefs in, 89
shortcomings of current practice and research needs, 7
specific and general forms, 70–72
successful instructional interventions to promote, 150–159
types of learning and, 83, 83t
use of schemas, 78
workplace interventions to promote, 155–159
See also Deeper learning
21st century skills and competencies
alignment with personality factors, 31–35
clusters of component skills, 1–2, 3–4, 25, 32–34t
deeper learning for development of, 5–6, 8, 70, 74, 99
definition, 1, 2–3, 5, 6, 17, 23, 25, 35, 67, 74
evidence of causality in educational and adult outcomes, 4–5, 37, 40–44t, 64–67
goals of Common Core Standards and NRC framework and, 111–112, 123f, 131, 133–134, 136–141, 136f, 189
interactions among, 22
parenting interventions to promote, 154–155
recommendations for design and development of instruction, 9–10, 181
recommendations for research, 5, 66–67
recursive relationship with deeper learning, 8, 99
resources for implementation in current instructional practice, 7, 140
self-regulated learning and, 93
societal benefits of promoting, 190
societal demand for, 1, 15, 16, 53–56
successful instructional interventions to promote, 150–159
systemic implementation of interventions to promote, 13–14, 19, 185–190, 192–193
transferable knowledge as characteristic of, 23, 74
trends in education, 16
See also Teaching 21st century skills and competencies
Twitter, 53
V
Visual perception, 28
W
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, 16–17
Work ethic, 89
Work outcomes
adaptability of firms to technological change, 62–63
cognitive competency and, 49–50, 54–56
earnings, 47–48, 49, 54, 55, 63–64, 66
educational attainment and, 37, 47–49, 61–64, 66
evidence of 21st century skills as causal in, 4–5, 37, 42–43t, 65–66
interpersonal skills as factor in, 55–56
noncognitive correlations, 51–53
nonmonetary rewards, 48
significance of 21st century skills in, 2, 18–19, 70
study goals, 17
team training interventions, 159
transferability of skills across occupations, 62–64
trends in marketplace demands, 53–56, 70
workplace interventions to promote transferable competencies, 155–159
Writing skills, 107