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Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel (2012)

Chapter: 1 Introduction

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Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
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1

Introduction

A notable achievement by the U.S. Army as of early 2012 is that 90 percent of the legacy chemical weapons and other chemical warfare materiel (CWM) from the Second World War and cold war eras and then stockpiled by the United States have been safely destroyed.1 Whatever cumulative risk had been posed by the existence of this CWM to communities surrounding the six military sites where it was guarded and safely maintained since the mid-twentieth century is now zero. Within a decade, the remaining 10 percent of the stockpiled CWM at two other military sites will likewise no longer exist. This monumental mission, spanning several decades, has been and continues to be accomplished safely in compliance with stringent federal and state environmental and health and safety requirements.

While the initial mission is phasing out after having overcome various scientific, regulatory, and political obstacles, an important and perhaps equally challenging mission remains that will become increasingly important over the next two decades. The international Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons, known informally as the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) treaty (CWC, 1997), to which the United States is a signatory, and U.S. legislation pertaining to such materiel required destruction only of CWM that was in storage (i.e., stockpiled), former production facilities that have since also been demolished, and CWM that was incidentally found and recovered from burial sites in various locations throughout the United States (so-called “small finds”) (EPA, 1980). However, since the First World War, the existence and locations of hundreds of thousands of other individual CWM items that remain buried have been identified and inventoried. Much of this materiel had been buried either after open burning or, sometimes, after being fired in munition ranges and was not considered part of the declared “stockpile” for CWC compliance purposes. These buried CWMs pose a huge challenge to the nation and the Department of Defense (DOD) as the need for usable land encroaches on these burial sites.

Approximately 250 sites in 40 states, the District of Columbia, and 3 territories are known to have or are suspected of having buried CWM, including some sites where large quantities are located (DOD, 2007). Nonetheless, much of the buried CWM is likely to continue to consist of small finds that necessitate continuation of the Army’s ability to transport treatment systems to such locations for their destruction (this rapid, short-term response is often called the “firehouse” function). Of greatest concern are sites in residential areas—the now urban Spring Valley section of Washington, D.C., and large sites on legacy military installations such as Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, where over 5 miles of disposal trenches have been identified. In general, large quantities of buried CWM are collocated with active or retired munition firing ranges or commingled with other hazardous substances and wastes that are routinely being cleaned up by the DOD’s Military Munitions Response Program (MMRP) and other remediation programs.

Neither the CWC treaty nor existing CWM domestic legislation requires recovery of buried CWM. Thus, the decision to contain the CWM in place or to recover it, at which point it becomes recovered chemical warfare materiel (RCWM) and is subject to the international requirement that it be destroyed, is an environmental remediation decision driven by federal and state environmental law. Such decisions are inherently site-specific and require consideration of the unique circumstances of the individual site, such as risk, the maturity and appropriateness of the technology that could be used, the presence of other toxic chemicals, existing and future land use (e.g., active installation or range), and the costs. The cost of characterization, remedy selection, and remediation of these large buried CWM sites is likely to be

image

1See graph at http://www.cma.army.mil/aboutcma.aspx#. Accessed April 10, 2012.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

several billion dollars.2 Although it is impossible to predict at this time the ultimate cost of completely remediating all CWM buried during the last century, the DOD should initially plan for a multi-billion-dollar program lasting many years. This estimate should be revised as more information about the quantities and condition of the CWM to be recovered becomes available.

The Army’s remediation of RCWM is becoming a very large program, greatly exceeding the existing smaller munition and hazardous substance cleanup programs. The organizational structure of the Army achieves its original mission of handling ad hoc CWM finds. Numerous organizations within the Army, as well as several offices within DOD, are involved in remediating existing RCWM sites. At present, different offices design and acquire the specialized CWM destruction and other equipment, and other offices operate the equipment; another unit transports the equipment and personnel. Moreover, various offices within the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Offices of the Secretary of the Army and of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) play significant roles in setting policy, obtaining federal funding, prioritizing sites for remediation, participating in the selection of remedies, and directing the overall cleanup.

Because of the imminent dramatic change in mission scope and the recognized complexity of the decision making and organizational issues involved, the Army asked the National Research Council (NRC) to examine this emerging mission with a view to improving its efficiency. In addition to examining the organizations and roles and the funding, the NRC was asked to review the technology tools used in the detection, excavation, packaging, storage, transportation, assessment, and destruction of buried CWM now available and those that may be needed in the future.

The committee was provided the latest information available and was given unfettered access to the full range of personnel involved in the process (including briefings and other communication with regulators). The committee benefited from the insight and candor provided by Army and DOD staff, contractors, and other stakeholders.

THE NATURE OF THE RECOVERED CWM PROBLEM

The mission of the U.S. Army’s Non-Stockpile Chemical Materiel Project (NSCMP) is “to provide management and direction to the United States Department of Defense for the disposal of non-stockpile chemical materiel in a safe, environmentally sound, cost-effective manner, while ensuring compliance with the Chemical Weapons Convention.”3 To this end, the NSCMP has pursued four mission areas:

1. Destruction of binary chemical warfare materiel;

2. Destruction of former chemical weapons production facilities;

3. Destruction of miscellaneous chemical warfare materiel covered by the CWC—for example, chemical samples, empty ton containers, and metal parts; and

4. Destruction of recovered chemical warfare materiel [chemical agent identification sets (CAIS)4 and chemical weapons].

Mission areas 1, 2, and 3 have been completed. Efforts in mission area 4 have been under way since the establishment of NSCMP and are expected to continue for the foreseeable future.

Over the past two decades the Army has prepared several reports addressing DOD’s potential liabilities for locating, excavating, and destroying decontaminated buried CWM and for managing any associated contaminated soil or groundwater. Cost estimates for these activities have varied widely because multiple agencies have been creating cost estimates using different assumptions about the number of sites needing remediation, the amount of CWM to be excavated and destroyed or decontaminated at each site, and the amount of contaminated soil or groundwater to be managed at each site. The total estimated 30-year life-cycle cost of the RCWM program ranges from a low of $2.5 billion to a high of $17 billion (DOD, 2007).

As shown in Figure 1-1, past mission area 4 activities were carried out in five areas:

•  Emergency response to assess or destroy RCWM;

•  Planned responses and support to planning and permitting activities;

•  Research and development activities primarily related to the Army’s explosive destruction system (EDS), explosive destruction technologies (EDTs), and portable isotopic neutron spectroscopy (PINS);

•  Assessment support for the U.S. Army’s Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) and the Assembled Chemical Weapons Alternatives (ACWA) Army element; and

•  Assessment support at overseas locations.

There are planned response activities in Alaska, South Dakota, Utah, Alabama, Florida, and Arkansas. Some of the sites listed, along with sites not shown here (see following section), are expected to contain substantial quantities of buried CWM, the remediation of which might be advanced through the findings and recommendations of this report.

More detailed information on the specifics of activities in all four mission areas is presented in Figure 1-2.

image

2Deborah A. Morefield, Environmental Management, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary for Installations and Environment Department of Defense, “Remediation Operations from an OSD Installations and Environment Perspective,” presentation to the committee on November 2, 2011.

3Laurence G. Gottschalk, PMNSCM, “Non-Stockpile Chemical Materiel Project Status and Update,” presentation to the committee on September 27, 2011.

4Chemical agent identification sets (CAIS) were produced in large quantities for training purposes from 1928 through 1969. A CAIS holds several glass vessels, each containing a blister or choking agent.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

image

FIGURE 1-1 NSCMP mission area 4 past and projected schedule. RSA, Redstone (Alabama) Arsenal; APG, Aberdeen Proving Ground; OD, ordnance depot; T&E, testing and evaluation; CNB, CN tear gas mixed with carbon tetrachloride and benzene; TDC, transportable detonation chamber; PCD, Pueblo (Colorado) Chemical Depot. SOURCE: Personal communication from Laurence G. Gottschalk, Project Manager for Non-Stockpile Chemical Materiel, to Nancy Schulte, NRC study director, March 7, 2012.

Figure 1-2 shows a wide range of information, including the following:

•  States with known or possible buried CWM;

•  Locations of past or planned NSCMP activities under all four mission areas, including assessment; destruction of agent, facilities, and munitions; and research and development; and

•  The number and types of CWM destroyed in past operations or for which destruction is planned.

Non-Stockpile Chemical Warfare Material in the United States

CWM is defined by the DOD as follows:

Items generally configured as a munition containing a chemical compound that is intended to kill, seriously injure or incapacitate a person through its physiological effects. CWM includes V- and G-series nerve agents or H-series (mustard) and L-series (lewisite) blister agents in other-than-munition configurations; and certain industrial chemicals (e.g., hydrogen cyanide (AC), cyanogen chloride (CK), or carbonyl dichloride (called phosgene or CG)) configured as a military munition. (DOD, 2007)

The Army’s 2007 RCWM Program Implementation Plan lists 249 known or suspected CWM sites in 35 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands (DOD, 2007). They include active environmental restoration sites, formerly used defense sites (FUDS), base realignment and closure (BRAC) sites, and active military ranges (DOD, 2007, Tables B-1, B-2, and B-3).5 A 2011 estimate by the NSCMP raises to 40 the number of states with known or possible buried CWM.6

The sites in the Army inventory where remediation work is planned during the FY 2012-2018 budget cycle are listed in Table 1-1. These include active, BRAC, and FUDS sites at which site investigations and/or cleanup work are expected to take place based on the Army’s current understanding of site-specific conditions.7

Known and suspected CWM sites include former manufacturing facilities, former demilitarization operations, former storage areas, disposal trenches and pits, chemical warfare demonstration areas, test sites, and training facilities. An early overview of the possible attributes of buried CWM is found in the Survey and Analysis Report, second edition, produced by the Program Manager for Chemical Demilitarization (U.S. Army, 1996). The executive summary of that report says, “although documentation surveys, interviews,

image

5There are also 699 locations for which there exists only anecdotal evidence for the presence of CWM.

6Laurence G. Gottschalk, PMNSCM, “Non-Stockpile Chemical Materiel Project Status and Update,” presentation to the committee on September 27, 2011.

7Personal communication from Bryan M. Frey, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff for Installation Management, Installation Services Directorate, Environmental Division, Department of the Army, to Nancy Schulte, NRC study director, February 3, 2012.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

image

FIGURE 1-2 Past and future mission areas 1-4 activities; locations and munitions destroyed. RRS, rapid response system, DOT, Department of Transportation; SCANS, single (chemical agent identification set) accessing and neutralization system; FPF, former production facility. SOURCE: Laurence G. Gottschalk, Project Manager for Non-Stockpile Chemical Materiel, presentation to the committee on September 27, 2011.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

TABLE 1-1 Inventory of Army RCWM Sites


Name of Installation Type of Installation

Redstone Arsenal, Ala.

Active

Pine Bluff Arsenal, Ark.

Active

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.

Active

Dugway Proving Ground, Utah

Active

Schofield Barracks, Hawaii

Active

Deseret Chemical Depot, Utah

Active

Pueblo Chemical Depot, Colo.

BRAC

Spring Valley, Washington, D.C.

FUDS

Camp Sibert, Ala.

FUDS

Former Schilling AFB, Kans.

FUDS

Fort Glenn, Alaska

FUDS

Withlacoochee, Fla.

FUDS

Black Hills, S.Dak.

FUDS


SOURCE: Bryan M. Frey, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff for Installation Management, Installation Services Directorate, Environmental Division, Department of the Army, briefing to the committee on January 18, 2012.

and site visits have been conducted, much information concerning buried CWM remains unknown.”

The little that is known about the nature of the buried CWM at each site is summarized in that report as follows:

The CWM that may be found at these potential buried CWM sites includes CAIS, mortar rounds, aerial bombs, rockets, projectiles, and storage containers of agent in cylinders, 55-gallon drums, and ton containers (TCs). Buried chemical agents include, but are not limited to, blister agents [mustard (H) and lewisite (L)], nerve agents (GA, GB, and VX), blood agents [hydrogen cyanide (AC) and cyanogen chloride (CK)], and choking agent [phosgene (CG)].

More up-to-date information about the quantities of CWM at each site, the agents that may be contained in the CWM, and the condition of the CWM items is being developed by the Army site by site using historical records and documents, visual observation of exposed materials found at sites, and interviews with retired Army personnel who have knowledge of chemical materiel at specific sites.

Study Context

The Army’s efforts to demilitarize chemical weapons are transitioning from programs designed to destroy smaller finds subject to the emergency response function, former production facilities, and individual CWM that are periodically discovered in areas where exposure may occur, to a program of CWM remediation that continues to implement an emergency response function but also recovers and destroys or provides containment of CWM that is present in pits and trenches at identified sites. This effort will occur amidst a complex web of environmental regulations and guidance, which are also examined in this report.

Also discussed in this report are the capabilities the NSCMP and the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center/ Chemical Biological Applications and Risk Reduction (ECBC/CBARR) program have been developing and implementing for conducting emergency responses and for supporting remediation efforts of substantial size. Examples of the latter type of effort include those at Spring Valley in Washington, D.C., and Camp Sibert in Alabama. Thus, a critical mass of technology and experience now exists that can be applied to remediation of larger sites that contain buried chemical weapons.

State and federal regulators have taken note of the regulatory situation and the availability of technology and expertise, and they are advocating moving forward with remediation efforts. A state regulator involved with the Redstone Arsenal in Alabama pointed out the following:

•  A combination of expertise, technology, personnel exists;

•  Growth of the Redstone area will require property reuse;

•  Groundwater is known to impact areas in and around disposal sites;

•  It may take several years to develop, design, and implement remedies that adequately reduce the risks to human health and the environment associated with the identified exposure pathways8; and

•  If you never start, you will never finish.9

Other factors have been identified as well:

•  Many military sites have a combination of buried chemical weapons, buried conventional weapons, industrial pollutants, and contaminated soil and groundwater. To clean up such a site, the project managers will need to ensure that their cleanup capabilities encompass the complete range of potential hazards, including CWM, conventional ordnance, and environmentally contaminated media (soil, water, and air). According to the CWC, once an item has been determined to fall into one of the categories of chemicals covered by the treaty, steps must be taken to declare and destroy it.10

image

8An exposure pathway is the route of contaminants from the source of contamination to potential contact with a medium (air, soil, surface water, or groundwater) that represents a potential threat to human health or the environment).

9Stephen A. Cobb, Chief, Government Hazardous Waste Branch, Land Division, Alabama Department of Environmental Management, “Remediation of Buried CWM in Alabama: The State Regulator’s Perspective,” presentation to the committee on November 2, 2011.

10Personal communication from Lynn Hoggins, Director, CBW Treaty Management, Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, Nuclear Chemical, Biological, to Nancy Schulte, NRC study director, January 6, 2012.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

•  Once a military facility is no longer active, the forces that push it into non-military control can become intense. Local governments will want the property to become subject to property tax. Developers will want parts of the property to become available for residential or commercial development. Prior to use for these purposes, buried chemical weapons, along with conventional weapons and contaminated soil, must be removed, and contaminated groundwater must be appropriately managed.

•  Mechanisms have been established for providing the funding for remediation efforts. See Chapter 6 for a discussion of this topic.

To facilitate the increased emphasis on remediation of buried chemical weapons in an efficient and cost-effective manner, the roles and responsibilities of many of the relevant organizations within the Army and DOD may need to change. This report addresses that issue.

Statement of Task

The National Research Council (NRC) will establish a committee to

•  Survey the organizations involved with remediation of suspected CWM disposal sites to determine current practices and coordination. At a minimum, the NRC will seek briefings from the following offices/organizations: Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army, Environment, Safety and Occupational Health; Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for the Elimination of Chemical Weapons; Chemical Materials Agency; Corps of Engineers Huntsville, Engineering and Support Center; Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear (enhanced) Analysis and Remediation Activity; Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center; and other directly involved entities identified as playing a role in CWM burial site remediations.

•  Review current supporting technologies for clean-up of CWM sites. This review would encompass excavation equipment and techniques, containment facilities, filtering techniques, personal protective equipment, monitoring, assessment, packaging, storage, transportation (on-site and intrastate), destruction technologies, and waste storage and disposal.

•  Identify potential deficiencies in operational areas based on the review of current supporting technologies for clean-up of CWM sites and develop options for targeted research and development efforts to mitigate potential problem areas.

•  Suggest means by which the coordination among organizations involved in conducting investigations, recoveries, and clean-up activities concerning non-stockpile CWM can be made more efficacious and effective.

Addressing the Statement of Task

Chapter 1 has provided an overview of the issues surrounding current programs and plans for the demilitarization of non-stockpile chemical materiel and the remediation of sites where such materiel is located. A description of the contents of the remaining chapters of this report follows. Each chapter examines a different aspect of the overall effort and how it impinges on the transitioning of the current program activities to larger-scale remediation efforts to recover CWM.

Chapter 2 delves into the very complicated web of organizations in which NSCMP functions. The history of the chemical demilitarization program, including the establishment of NSCMP, is described briefly. The numerous DOD and Department of the Army offices and organizations with which the NSCMP is involved are listed and described. The current reporting relationships and the flow of funding to NSCMP are described. Finally, the management practices employed by NSCMP to carry out its RCWM remediation mission are discussed.

Chapter 3 summarizes the regulatory framework for NSCMP’s RCWM program. The need to remediate known or suspected chemical weapon burial sites—especially the larger sites—has become more urgent in recent years. The factors responsible for this situation are examined in this chapter. The CWC, the treaty governing all activities involving chemical weapons, is described. The impact of the two main relevant U.S. regulatory programs, RCRA (EPA, 1976) and CERCLA (EPA, 1980), is briefly described. Finally, the roles and responsibilities of NSCMP with respect to public involvement are discussed. Regulatory background is provided in Appendix D.

Chapter 4 summarizes the technologies that are currently owned by or are available to NSCMP and closely related organizations for the range of activities involved in locating a buried chemical munition, bringing it to the surface, assessing the munition, and destroying the munition. Recent remediation activities that have employed these technologies, recent advances in technology, and ongoing research and development activities by NSCMP and others are listed and discussed.

Chapter 5 presents a discussion of several aspects of the possible future remediation of the buried chemical warfare materiel at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, which is very likely the largest and most complex of the burial sites in the United States. A history of the existence and disposal of non-stockpile chemical materiel at this very large and complex site has been compiled by the Army and is described. Munitions and other items expected to be found are listed. The abilities of technologies currently available to NSCMP to assess the expected recovered items and to destroy or decontaminate them are discussed. Regulatory considerations and a possible organizational partnering concept for the effort at the Redstone Arsenal are described.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×

Chapter 6 provides recommendations for targeted research and development in the areas of (1) munition assessment, (2) destruction of intact munitions, and (3) decontamination of empty contaminated items.

Chapter 7 presents a review the current NSCMP organizational relationships and flow of funding as presented in Chapter 2, and the impact of the future diminished role of the CMA is discussed. Recommendations for changes in both NSCMP organizational relationships and the flow of funding for remediation of CWM sites are then presented and discussed.

Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 11
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 12
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 13
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 14
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 15
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 16
Suggested Citation:"1 Introduction." National Research Council. 2012. Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/13419.
×
Page 17
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As the result of disposal practices from the early to mid-twentieth century, approximately 250 sites in 40 states, the District of Columbia, and 3 territories are known or suspected to have buried chemical warfare materiel (CWM). Much of this CWM is likely to occur in the form of small finds that necessitate the continuation of the Army's capability to transport treatment systems to disposal locations for destruction. Of greatest concern for the future are sites in residential areas and large sites on legacy military installations.

The Army mission regarding the remediation of recovered chemical warfare materiel (RCWM) is turning into a program much larger than the existing munition and hazardous substance cleanup programs. The Army asked the Nation Research Council (NRC) to examine this evolving mission in part because this change is significant and becoming even more prominent as the stockpile destruction is nearing completion. One focus in this report is the current and future status of the Non-Stockpile Chemical Material Project (NSCMP), which now plays a central role in the remediation of recovered chemical warfare materiel and which reports to the Chemical Materials Agency.

Remediation of Buried Chemical Warfare Materiel also reviews current supporting technologies for cleanup of CWM sites and surveys organizations involved with remediation of suspected CWM disposal sites to determine current practices and coordination. In this report, potential deficiencies in operational areas based on the review of current supporting technologies for cleanup of CWM sites and develop options for targeted research and development efforts to mitigate potential problem areas are identified.

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