Center Truck Performance on Low-Floor Light Rail Vehicles (2006)

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72 Part 1. Most Relevant Sources (including a brief summary) Anon. “Richtlinien für die Spurführung von Schienenbah- nen nach der Verordnung über den Bau und Betrieb der Straßenbahnen (BOStrab), Spurführungs-Richtlinien (SpR),” (Regulations on the Guidance of Rail Vehicles in accordance with the German Federal Regulations on the Con- struction and Operation of Light Rail Transit Systems (BOStrab), Guidance Regulations (SpR). March 2004. This document explains the German regulations on the guidance of streetcars. There is considerable detailed infor- mation on the wheel and track profiles and other key param- eters used in different circumstances. Anon.“VDV-600 Oberbau Richtlinien und Zusatzrichtlin- ien,” VDV 1995. A regulatory document detailing track design parameters for German streetcar systems. Supplementary to the above reference. Aprile, Bandinelli, Marianeschi, “Integrating Low-Floor Technology into a pre-existing infrastructure: partial low- floor light rail vehicle in a mixed environment: Lessons learned from the manufacture of Boston’s partial low-floor Light Rail Vehicle,” TRC E-C058, 8th National Rail Transit Conference. TRB 2000. The Breda approach to developing the MBTA Type 8 car, then seen as one of the most difficult operating environments on a U.S. and Canadian transit system. The technical issues, solutions, and risk control measures are discussed. APTA, “Standard for Rail Transit Track Inspection and Maintenance. Volume 5 - Fixed Structure, RT-S-FS-002-02, Draft- July 26th 2004. Minimum requirements for inspecting and maintaining rail transit system tracks. Booz, Allen and Hamilton Inc. TCRP Report 2: Applicabil- ity of Low-Floor Light Rail Vehicles in North America, 1995. Review of all LFLRVs in use in the United States and Canada. Discussion of vehicle applicability, compatibility with existing systems and operations, and two case studies that help define risk assessment and operating compatibility. Breindl/Hachmann/Risch, “Radverschleiß und polygonale Radabnutzung an Straßenbahnen. Untersuchungen der BVG Berlin und Adtranz Nürnberg,” (Polygonal wheel wear on trams. Research by BVG Berlin and Adtranz Nürnberg.) Der Nahverkehr March 2000. BVG (Berlin) operates a vehicle pool of 452 Tatra and 105 low-floor vehicles of the GT6 type. After introduction of the vehicles, very high wheel and flange wear and the development of polygons on the wheels was recorded. To counteract this, a catalog of measures was developed that included first a study of the current status of wear and the polygon developments for the low- and high-floor vehicles. To avoid the development of excessive noise, a track-based measuring system was introduced that detects problems when vehicles pass into the depot. As a result of the study, the re-profiling of the wheels was optimized by modifying the wheel lathe. The article concludes that systematic research into the reasons for polygon development would be necessary. Brickle/Gilchrist, “A re-examination of the proneness to derailment of a railway wheelset.” IMechE 1976. A theoretical study that looks in detail at derailment theory for conventional wheelsets. Canjea/Thornes, “NJ Transit Low Floor Light Rail Car - A Modern Design.” TRC E-C058, 8th National Rail Transit Conference, TRB 2000. This paper gives both technical details of the design of the Kinki Sharyo cars and information regarding the operational experience gained. Elkins/Wilson,“Wheel/rail interaction: flange climb derail- ment and effects of IRW,” TTCI Rail Transit ’04, 2004. This presentation deals with the fundamental theory of wheelset curving and derailment, and then contrasts this with the behavior of independent wheels. The sensitivity of inde- pendent wheel center trucks to vehicle design parameters is explored in detail. A P P E N D I X F Bibliography

Fraser/Leary/Marianeschi/Pellegrini, “Integrating new light rail vehicle technology into mature infrastructure,” TRC E-C058, 9th National Rail Transit Conference. TRB 2003. In 1995, MBTA ordered 100 partial low-floor, double- articulated LRVs from AnsaldoBreda. These vehicles operate in consist with existing high-floor, single articulated LRVs. Some of the challenges faced by the project team are dis- cussed. Derailments of the leading axle of the center truck have been an issue. Several modifications were implemented following a study of vehicle dynamics and an investigation of the effects of track quality. Frederich/Kraft, “Funktionale Spurfuhrungsgeometrie fur Nahverkehrsbahnen,” (Functional tracking geometry for commuter type railways) Der Nahverkehr, April 1999. Tracking is the general term for the two functions “track guidance” and “track securing.” Track guidance is per- formed by the geometry of running surface and the railhead. Track securing is acting, if holding the track by the running surface is not sufficient any more. This operating condition has to be avoided as far as possible, because it will create high forces and thus wear, increased running resistance, and noise. Frederich/Kraft, “Berechnungen zur Spurführung. Wie prüft man die richtige Abstimmung von Fahrwerk und Gleis?” Calculations for wheel-rail guidance. How to evaluate the correct calibration between truck (running gear) and track?, Der Nahverkehr, May 1999. Determination of the common geometric plane (GGE)– outline of the flange–interdependence between rail head and wheel profile–determination of guidance dimensions– geometrical criteria. The goal was the functional determination of guidance dimensions; systematic research into the require- ments of the guidance geometry for rapid transit systems, and development of an assessment system for the co-ordination of the transverse dimensions of truck (running gear) and track. Development of the formulae with the example of a fixed-axle truck; the system demonstrated is based on functional track and truck dimensions. Frederich,“Nullebenen-Konzept der Spurführung,”(Apply- ing the zero-level concept to improve the track following capability), ZEV + DET Glas.Ann 123, August 1999. The combination of traditional mechanics and modern electronics is opening new dimensions and possibilities. Advances in automobile engineering and modern mechani- cal engineering have proved this. An analysis of the wheel/rail contact conditions of conven- tional wheelset has led to a new track following principle. The undesirable wave phenomenon is eliminated without impair- ing the desirable radial self-alignment. The solution is called zero-level concept with power diversion control and elec- tronic wave compensation. The paper describes the principle, the implementation, and the results obtained on two experi- mental trucks. Frederich, “Horizonte der Spurfuhrung,” (Horizons of wheelset alignment and tracking). ZEV + DET Glas.Ann 124, May 2000. Wheelsets and ideal alignment and tracking are still being considered as inseparable. It is revealed by a closer review that wheelsets do not really lend themselves to high-speed run- ning or curve running. An additional drawback is their high weight. The systematic search for other rolling and alignment prin- ciples has led to new solutions that will open the way to new methods of alignment and tracking. Today, three directions of development are feasible. Heilig/Porter, “Finally some Operating Experience with Low Floor Light Rail Vehicles (In North America). TRC E-C058, 8th National Rail Transit Conference. TRB 2000. Experience of operation of the Portland LFLRVs during the first 2 years of revenue service. Reliability parameters are quantified and compared with those for older high-floor vehicles. Topics covered include service reliability, ride qual- ity, and the performance of the center trucks. Hondius, “Citadis-Straßenbahnen: Entwicklungen seit 1999. Ein Überblick über die Evolution der Niederflur- Baureihe von Alstom,” (Citadis trams: Development since 1999. An overview on the evolution of the Alstom low-floor concept.). Der Nahverkehr, January/February 2004. History of the development of the Citadis Models as 6 low- floor versions. Citadis are a hybrid construction, using welded aluminum, steel as well as rivets to combine aluminum and steel. Citadis-Trams have no major mechanical faults and, in general, a good reputation. Hüber, “Laufruhe von Niederflurbahnen: Möglichkeiten der Optimierung,” (Running smoothness of low-floor vehi- cles: Potential for optimization.). Der Nahverkehr, September 2004. Development of LFLRVs since the end of the 1980s. Description of the development of different types, including 70-percent low floor with single wheel, single axles, and 100- percent single wheel trucks. Description of the problems operating wheelsets without axles on light rail networks because the wheel back-to-back distance cannot be kept con- stant after longer periods of operation. A description of the high wear resulting from the lack of sinus running when no fixed axles are used. After a description of the possible solu- tions for low-floor vehicles, the author gives a statement as to the best construction for low-floor vehicles with optimal guidance characteristics. Int-Veen/Nimphius, “Niederflurbahnen für Essen. Erfahrungen nach drei Jahren Praxiseinsatz,” (Low floor streetcars for Essen. Experiences after three years practical application). Der Nahverkehr, December 2002. The article deals with the 70-percent low-floor vehicles introduced to the Essen network between 1999 and 2001. The vehicles were manufactured by Bombardier. Some detail is 73

provided about the operational experience, such as require- ments determined by existing infrastructure and the specifi- cations of the operator. Issues such as introduction to service, experiences with vehicle electrical and mechanical systems, treatment of life-cycle-costs, energy consumption, wheel wear, brakes, doors, bonding, and derailment are covered. Kramp, Shu, Wilson, “Effects of Independently Rolling Wheels on Flange Climbing Derailment”, ASME 2004. Extended description of the work covered in the report by Elkins and Wilson (see above). Krettek/Miluczky, “Zum Einfluss der Dachdampfer auf den Lauf von Niederflur-Multigelenkstadtbahnwagen,” (About the influence of roof dampers on the running behav- ior of multi-articulation streetcars) proprietary note, 2002. The authors are describing the investigations in regard to the optimization of the running behavior of the multi- articulation low-floor vehicle 2000 of the Duisburg transit authorities DVG. This vehicle showed unacceptable lateral and yaw modes. Modifications on the drive concept, intercar dampers and modifications of the wheel profile contributed to a consider- able improvement of the running behavior. Lenti, “Simulation einer Strassenbahn mit Einzel- radaufhangung,” (Simulation of a streetcar with single wheels) Stadtverkehr April 2002 (Volume 47). During the design of the new streetcar for Turin, Italy, ALSTOM Ferroviaria decided to determine the dynamic behavior of the vehicle by means of virtual prototyping. ADAMS/Rail was used to simulate the vehicle, validation of the models were performed, and the dynamic behavior of the first streetcars was as predicted. This tool proved to be well suited for this purpose. MBTA Internet Homepage 31.10.04. www.mbta.com. Information on Type 8 LRV. Green Line Fleet List. Status of type 8 cars. Chronology of events involving type 8 cars. Morgan, “Light Rail Vehicles’ Low-Floor Center Section,” TRC E-C058, 9th National Rail Transit Conference. TRB 2003. A report on the assessment by Dallas (DART) for intro- ducing LFLRVs, taking into account all related issues, includ- ing infrastructure changes. The LFLRV would be existing cars with an added center section. High speed was an issue, because of lack of experience of high-speed applications of this solution. The decision was mainly based on cost; techni- cal issues were barely discussed. Nelson. TCRP Report 23: Wheel/rail Noise Control Manual, 1997. A very detailed review of railroad borne noise, including wheel/rail noise generation, noise control treatments, and cost analysis. Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade and Douglas, Inc., TCRP Report 57: Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, 2000. A detailed review of LRT operations in the United States and Canada. Includes vehicles, track geometry, structural designs, track materials and special trackwork, aerial struc- tures, and signals. Pearce/Sherratt, “Wheel Profile Shapes.”Paper presented at the Wheels and Axles Seminar, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, April 1999. Basic principles involved in developing wheel profiles, including LRVs for operation both on tramway and railway infrastructure. Pearson, “Passenger Access Considerations for Low-floor Light Rail Vehicles,” TRC E-C058, 8th National Rail Transit Conference. TRB 2000. This paper considers the relationship between vehicle and platform heights for LFLRVs, taking into account all the main contributory variables (e.g., track bed, truck, and suspension characteristics). Applicable FTA and ADA regulations are discussed. Schreiber, “Betrachtungen zum Spurkranzverschleiss an den Losraden des Niederflurmittelwagens,”(Consideration of the flange wear on the single wheels of the low floor inter- mediate section) proprietary note, 1997. The author describes the behavior of the single wheels of the low-floor intermediate sections of streetcars (a popular enhancement of the capacity of existing vehicles in Europe). The pros and cons of the solution are discussed and the the- ory of the behavior of these running gears is given. Estimates on the life of the wheels are given and procedures to guar- antee the standing of the profile between reprofiling are given. Snowdon, “The Development of Tyre Profiles for Tramway and Light Rail Operation”. Paper presented at the Wheels and Axles Seminar, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, April 1999. Paper by the Chief Engineer, Tramtrack, Croydon, describ- ing how the wheel profiles of the Docklands Light Railway were developed. Stöhrer, “Leoliner: Neue Niederflurbahn für knappe Beschaffungsbudgets,”(Leoliner: New Low-floor tram for tight procurement budgets). Der Nahverkehr, November 2003. In Sept 2003, the prototype of the new six-axle low-floor articulated tram NGTW 6 Leoliner was introduced. Previ- ously (1994), the LVB (public transport operator in Leipzig) had ordered 56 articulated low-floor vehicles. The Leoliner concept is to get new vehicles in “half the time for half the price.” It has been designed and manufactured by LFB, a joint venture of LVB and Siemens TS. The vehicles operate on stan- dard bogies for off-street track in the non-modernized parts 74

of the network. Width of the vehicles is 2,300 mm, 60 percent of the vehicle is low-floor. Suda, “Dynamic stability and steering ability of steering trucks using unsymmetrical suspension with independently rotating wheels,” World Congress on Railway Research, November 1997,Volume D. This paper presents the dynamic stability and steering abil- ity around curves of a new truck for rail vehicles with IRWs in the trailing axle. From the theoretical analysis using a truck model, the proposed truck has better curving performance than conventional trucks with normal wheelsets. Swanson,“Evolution, Not Revolution in LRV Design,”TRC E-C058, 8th National Rail Transit Conference, TRB 2000. An overview of some of the commercial considerations that influence LFLRV design. Not particularly relevant other than as a source of some general system parameters. Wu, Shu, Wilson, TCRP Report 71, Volume 5: Flange Climb Derailment Criteria and Wheel/Rail Profile Management and Maintenance Guidelines for Transit Operations. Transporta- tion Technology Center, Inc. TRB 2005. Results of the research carried out under TCRP Project D-7. It describes flange climb derailment criteria for transit vehicles that include lateral-to-vertical (L/V) ratio limits and a corresponding flange-climb-distance limit and provides guidance for wheel and rail maintenance practices. Zarembski, “Derailment of Transit Vehicles in Special Trackwork”, TCRP Final Draft Report, July 1996. Zeta-Tech. Results of the research carried out under TCRP Project D-2. The objective was to determine the most cost-effective mitigation devices and techniques to be used by rail rapid transit systems to reduce or eliminate the possibility of spe- cial trackwork derailments. Part 2. Other Sources Anon, “Niederflur-Straßenbahn-Prototyp für München.” (Low floor prototype tram for Munich). Stadtverkehr Son- derdruck 1993. APTA,”Passenger Rail Equipment Safety Standards Task Force Technical Bulletin 1998-1, part 1 on Commuter Car Safety Regarding: Wheel Running Surface Manufacturing And Reprofiling Contour,” Prepared by the Wheel/rail Inter- face Working Group of the Passenger Rail Equipment Safety Standards (PRESS) Task Force, November 3rd, 1998. Bombardier Eurorail, “Zweisystemfahrzeug Stadtbahn Saar.”(Dual system rail vehicle for the Saar Light Rail system). Supplier literature, 1996/07. CKD Tatra, “Dreiteiliger Niederflur-Stadtbahnwagen RT6- N1.”(Three section low floor tram RT6-N1).Supplier literature. DeLibero, “MetroRail paves the way towards a compre- hensive mobility plan.” Railway Gazette Metro Report 2002. Dillig, “Präsentation der Niederflur-Straßenbahn für Halle.” (Presentation of low floor trams for Halle) Stadtverkehr Sonderdruck 1993. Dillig, “Avanto Tram-Train für die SNCF.” (Avanto Tram Train for French National Railways). Der Stadtverkehr 2002/10. Hondius, “Die Entwicklung der Nieder- und Mittelflur- Straßen- und Stadtbahnen.” (The Development of Low floor and Middle floor Trams and Light Rail Vehicles Der Stadtverkehr (Series of articles - still being published). 1989/02, 1990/05, 1992/03, 1992/04, 1993/01, 1993/02, 1993/10, 1993/11-12, 1994/06, 1995/02, 1995/03, 1996/01, 1996/02-03, 1997/09, 1998/09, 1998/10, 1999/11-12, 2000/01, 2000/11-12, 2001/01, 2001/11-12, 2002/01, 2002/11-12, 2003/01, 2003/11-12, 2004/01, 2004/11-12, 2005/01. Hondius, “Frankfurt/M.: Übergabe des ersten in Serie hergestellten R-Wagens.” (Frankfurt-on-Main: Delivery of the first of the R series cars) Stadtverkehr Sonderdruck 1993. Hondius, “Potsdam: ViP nimmt ersten Serien-Combino in Betrieb.” (Potsdam: The first of the Combino series enters service). Der Stadtverkehr 1999/01. Hondius, “Incentro - die neue Systemstraßenbahn von Adtranz,” (Incentro - the new tram concept from Adtranz). Der Stadtverkehr 2000/06. Hondius,“Die Drehgestell-Niederflurbahnen NF 2000 von Bombardier Transportation.” (The low floor light rail truck NF 2000 from Bombardier Transportation”, Der Stadtverkehr 2001/05. Hondius, “Der Bombardier-Cityrunner für die Grazer Verkehrsbetriebe.” (The Bombardier Cityrunner for the Graz Transport Company). Der Stadtverkehr 2001/06. Hondius, Neue Bahnen für Schwerin. (New rail vehicles for Schwerin). Der Stadtverkehr 2001/09. Hondius, “System cars dominate falling market.” Railway Gazette Metro Report 2002. Hondius, “Die Combino-Lieferung an M>Tram Mel- bourne hat begonnen.” (Supply of Combinos to the Mel- bourne Tramway begins). Stadtverkehr 2002/05. Hondius, “Neuentwicklung: Regiotram-Fahrzeuge für den Raum Kassel.” (New developments: Regiotram vehicles for the Kassel region.) Der Stadtverkehr 2002/05. Hondius, “Avanto, die neue System-Niederflurstadtbahn von Siemens TS.” (Avanto the new low floor tram design from Siemens Transportation Systems). Stadtverkehr 2002/06. Hondius, “Neue Fahrzeuge und Strecken in Linz.” (New vehicles and services in Linz) Der Stadtverkehr 2002/07-08. Hondius, “Big builders face uncertainty as system cars dominate the market.” Railway Gazette Metro Report 2004. 75

Hondius, “Bombardier-Straßenbahn für Eskisehir bei OEG erprobt.” (Bombardier tram for Eskisehir (Turkey) is tested by OEG). Der Stadtverkehr 2004/04. Kunow, “Kassel: Neue Niederflur-Straßenbahn.” (Kassel: New low-floor tram). Stadtverkehr Sonderdruck 1993. Lehna/Theiler. “What is the Advantage of Optimizing the Wheel/Rail Profiles?” Presentation given at InnoTrans 2004. Lehna/Theiler/Imhof. “Radprofiloptimierung bei den Verkehrsbetrieben Zürich” (“Wheel Profile optimization on the Zurich Transport System”). Presentation prepared by the Institut für Bahntechnik GmbH (In German). Marie, “Hiawatha joins the light rail family.” Railway Gazette Metro Report 2004. Op de Beeck/Mechelen/Hondius, “Neue Straßenbahnwa- gen für “De Lijn,”(New Tram for the Belgian Coast Light Rail- way). Der Stadtverkehr 2000/03. Riechers, “Die Stadtwerke Ulm/Neu-Ulm erneuern ihren Straßenbahnpark,” (The public transport systems of Ulm and New Ulm replace their tram fleet) Der Stadtverkehr 2003/06. Sarunac/Zeolla, “Structural and Crashworthiness Require- ments of Light Rail Vehicles with Low-Floor Extension.”Trans- portation Research E-Circular E-C058, pages 89-103, 2003. STADLER, “Stadler präsentiert Prototyp des Gelenktrieb- wagens 2/6.” (Stadler presents the prototype driving trailer 2/6). Press release 1995/08. Tuzik, “Examining wheel/rail interaction on rail transit systems.”“Interface,” November 4th 2004. Uebel, “Die Entwicklung des Niederflur-Gelenktriebwa- gens GT 6 N der Bremer Straßenbahn AG.”(The development of the low floor driving trailers GT 6 N of Bremen Tramways) Stadtverkehr Sonderdruck 1993. 76