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Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 lNIPcODUCTION 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FILM BADGE DOSIMETRY A. Historical introduction, 10 B. Personnel dosimetry films, 12 C. Physical and chemical basis of film dosimetry, 14 D. The development process, 14 E. Densitometry, 15 F. Response characteristics of film, 16 G. Energy dependence and film badge design, 18 H. Other sources of error in film badge dosimetry, 20 I. Calibration and standardization, 21 J. Neutron dosimetry, 22 3 RADIATION SOURCE TERMS IN ATMOSPHERIC TESTING A. Introduction 24 B. Initial radiation, 25 C. Residual radiation, 26 D. Photon fields from residual radioactivity, 29 E. Conclusion, 34 LK ... 10 ....... 24
x CONTENTS 4 USE OF FILM BADGES IN ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR TESTING . . . 35 A. Fission and activation-product monitoring with film badges, 35 B. Beta particle monitoring, 37 C. Calibration, 41 D. Film badge range and the problem of overlap, 41 E. Effects of solanzation on film badge monitoring, 42 F. Radiological and operational effects, 46 G. Environmental effects in field use, 49 H. Film badge exposure versus dose, 52 Test series exposure limits, 55 5 QUANTIFICATION OF PERSONNEL FILM BADGE UNCERTAINTIES .......................................... A. Development and application of measures of total uncertainty, 61 B. Categories of uncertainty, 68 C. Minimum detectable level of radiation exposure measurable with a film badge, 74 D. Commonality among the test senes, 75 E. Conversion from exposure to dose equivalent, 76 ...61 6 UNCERTAINLY ANALYSIS BY INDIVIDUAL TEST SERIES 80 TRINITY CROSSROADS SANDSTONE RANGER GREENHOUSE BUSTER-JANGLE TUMBLER-SNAPPER IVY UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE . CASTLE TEAl\)T WIGWAM REDWING PLUMBBOB HARDTACK I ARGUS HARDTACK II DOMINIC I DOMINIC II ........................ ·-~---.·..---.·..···- · - . - . - . - ~ ~ - - - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - ··.·...---.·---···--·- · ·········· . ·· . ··· .. 91 96 100 106 112 .. 120 .. 126 .. 132 .. 137 ........ 144 .. 148 .. 154 .. 160 .. 166 .. 169 .. 174 .. 181
CONTENTS 7 CONCLUSIONS....................... A. Tractability of the problem, 1X6 B. Gamma radiation from fission products and activation products, 187 C. Capabilities and limitations of fUm badge dosimeters, 188 D. Bias and uncertainty, 188 E. Methodology for assessing bias and uncertainty, 189 F. Minimum detectable exposure level, 189 G. Conversion from exposure to dose equivalent, 190 8 PUECOhI~DENDATIONS · ~en A. Reporting of biases and uncertainties with B's and K's, 191 B. Treatment of exposures reported as below minimum detectable levels or as zero, 191 C. Uncertainties in the summation of several film badge readings, 192 REFERENCES ..... APPE~nDIXES..................... A Organizational Abbreviations, 201 B Glossary, 203 C Biographical Sketches, 209 INDEX . . 186 ...191 193 ....... 201 ....... 217
List of Tables Table 3-1 Significant Contributors to Residual Photon Fields 31 Table 4-1 Radiation Exposure Standards for U.S. Nuclear Test Series 56-60 Table 5-1 Additional Uncertainty Factors for Film Badge Readings Below 0.2 R 71 Table 5-2 The Ratios of Effective Dose Equivalent, H^, to Deep-Dose - Equivalent, Hp(10) 79 Table 5-3 The Ratio of Deep-Dose Equivalent, H (10), to Exposure 79 Table 5-4 The Ratio of Red Bone Marrow Dose Equivalent to Deep-Dose Equivalent, H (10) 79 Table 5-5 The Ratio of Lung-Dose Equivalent to Deep-Dose Equivalent, Hp(10) . . . . x~ 79
List of Figures Figure 2-1 Standard Film Badge with Silver or Cadmium Filter 12 Figure 2-2 Cross-section of a Typical Photographic Film 13 Figure 2-3 Characteristic Response Curve (H & D) for a Photographic Emulsion Exposed to Ionizing Radiation 17 Figure 2 ~Energy Dependence Curve for Unshielded Personnel MonitonngFilm 19 Figure 2-5 Film Response with 0.020-inch Tantalum Filter 20 Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Calculated Time Dependence of the Gamma-ray Energy Output per Kiloton Energy Yield from a Hypothetical Nuclear Explosion ............................. Experimental Photon Spectrum (t= 25.8 min) ............ ...... 27 33 Figure 4-1 Film Badge Used in Operation CROSSROADS 40 Figure 4-2 Overlap of Types 508 and 1290 Film Components 43 Figure 4-3 Overlap of Types 502 and 606 Film Components 44 Figure 44 Overlap of Types 502 and 834 Film Components 45 Figure 5-1 Lognormal Distributions Figure 5-2 Plot of Uncertainty, K(E) vs Exposure, Elm for Du Pont 502 and 606 Film Components ..... xv 64 70
