Video Surveillance Uses by Rail Transit Agencies (2011)

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68 LITERATURE REVIEW [ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY] Balog, J.N., A.N. Schwartz, and B.C. Doyle, Transit Secu- rity Procedures Guide, Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 1994. This FTA guide provides a systems approach to transit security planning and implementation, provides procedures for immediate and follow-up responses to incidents, and highlights a number of common transit security problems as well as defensive actions systems can employ to minimize those problems. Balog, J.N., A.N. Schwartz, and B.C. Doyle, Transit System Security Program Planning Guide, Federal Transit Admin- istration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 1994. At the time of publication, the FTA encouraged but now mandates that all transit agencies develop and implement a system security plan. Although aspects of the document are no longer policy, the guide contains a useful bibliography of about 200 items on transit security. Barbeau, S., M. Labrador, P. Winters, and N.L. Georggi, Enhancing Transit Safety and Security with Wireless Detec- tion and Communication Technologies, Final Report BD549 RPWO # 45 for the Florida Department of Transportation, Tampa, Fla., National Center for Transit Research, Center for Urban Transportation Research, University of Florida, 2008. Report on a project to develop a scalable, real-time intru- sion detection and remote notification system using wireless sensor networks; it is an alternative or supplement to tradi- tional wired security systems for protecting such areas and facilities as garages, tunnels, and yards. Bennett, T. and L. Gelsthorpe, Public Attitudes Towards CCTV in Public Places, Studies on Crime Prevention, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1996, pp. 72–90. When asked to rank desired crime prevention strategies that included CCTV, more police officers patrolling on foot, or brighter street lights at night, CCTV ranked third. Black, T., Cameras Make Portland Buses More Secure, The American City & County, Oct. 1998, p. S18. In 1987, Portland, Oregon, Tri-Met began its use of sur- veillance technology by equipping three buses with three cameras each. In the mid-1990s, the agency equipped 40 buses with three cameras each. Tri-Met has been equipping buses, rail cars, and facilities with digital cameras. The digi- tal system provides sharp, focused images; good color; and the ability to manipulate data. The cameras are easily visible, and signage alerts riders of the cameras’ presence. In addi- tion to serving as a crime deterrent and providing potential evidence in the event of criminal proceedings, cameras can prevent civil litigation or help a transit agency win a claim. Bloom, R.F., Closed Circuit Television in Transit Stations: Application Guidelines, Report ED-80-1, Dunlap and Asso- ciates, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., 1980. Provides guidelines on preventive security measures and surveillance techniques applicable for transit stations. Chace, R.W., An Overview of the Guidelines for Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) for Public Safety and Community Policing, Security Industry Association, Alexandria, Va., 2001. Developed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) in conjunction with the Security Industry Asso- ciation as part of the IACP Private Sector Liaison Committee, this primer provides guidance to law enforcement in the use of overt cameras in public areas for public safety purposes. Clarke, R.V., Ed. Preventing Mass Transit Crime, Criminal Justice Press., Monsey, N.Y., 1996. This book contains academic studies by a variety of authors who considered the use of crime prevention through environ- mental design and other tactics in transit environments. Cozens, P., R. Neale, D. Hillier, and J. Whitaker, Tackling Crime and Fear of Crime While Waiting at Britain’s Rail- way Stations, Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2004, pp. 23–41. A study of passengers’ fear at stations using Quick Time Virtual Reality, an interactive environmental stimulus for gaining insights into passengers’ fear of crime. Visibility at stations was identified as a crucial factor in determining fear of crime. The design of the station’s shelter is analyzed as an example of how CPTED is being implemented on railway stations by Valley Lines (Wales and Borders Trains) on its network in South Wales (UK). DeGeneste, H.I. and J.P. Sullivan, Policing Transportation Facilities, Chares C. Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1994. Although somewhat dated, this book remains an excellent primer on the problems confronting police at airports, water- front terminals, and rail and transit facilities. DeGeneste, the PANY&NJ retired director of public safety and super- intendent of police, and Sullivan, a Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department supervisory officer who has spent much of his career in transit policing, provide chapters on commuter rail and subway crime, terrorism, and problems associated with homelessness and mentally ill persons congregating in transportation facilities. Denver RTD Embraces Camera Surveillance, Transit Polic- ing, Spring 1995, p. 28. Based on a pilot program that documented a decade of crime and vandalism on its buses, the RTD equipped its light rail vehicles with surveillance cameras.

69 Eder, A., After September 11, 2001: How Transit Agen- cies Prepare for the Threat of Terrorism, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1927, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2005, pp. 92–100. This paper identifies pre-9/11 transit security planning, showing how the attacks changed the way government and transit agencies address security concerns; includes an analysis of post-1/99 security measures adopted by the FTA, New York City Transit, WMATA, and BART. A case study of Tri-Met looks particularly at the agency’s responses to threats facing transit systems. Egan, T., Police Surveillance of Streets Turn to Video Cam- eras and Listening Devices, The New York Times, Feb. 7, 1996, p. A12:1–2. With the current focus on cameras surveilling city streets, this article is a reminder that the technology has been used in this way for more than a decade. Fink, C.N.Y., Antiterrorism Security and Surface Transpor- tation Systems: Review of Case Studies and Current Tactics, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transpor- tation Research Board, No. 1822, 2003, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., pp. 9–17. Brief case studies of the bombing attacks in the London and Paris subway systems and the chemical gas attacks in the Tokyo subway system; recommends as cost-effective options for transit systems the use of CPTED, surveillance systems (particularly CCTV), training and exercises, and developing closer relationships with local, state, and federal agencies. Gilbert, S., Surveillance Technologies: Electronically Lever- aging Transit Security Forces, The Police Chief, July 1995, p. 22. Overview of surveillance measures employed by a vari- ety of transit agencies. Goldgof, D.B., D. Sapper, J. Candamo, and M. Shreve, Eval- uation of Smart Video for Transit Event Detection, Project BD549-49, Final Report, Florida Department of Transporta- tion Research Center, Tallahassee, June 2009. Intended to develop an evaluation framework for commer- cial video analytics systems, this report identifies strengths, weaknesses, areas of future research, and surveyed video analytics products. Product capabilities were identified by working with vendors and analyzing their literature. Use of analytic technology in Florida transit agencies was ana- lyzed; a survey among the largest agencies found low use of analytics, skepticism, and poor knowledge of the technol- ogy and its capabilities. Conclusions include an evaluation framework for analytics technology, including annotation guidelines, scoring metrics, and implementation of the met- rics in the scoring software. Gordon, R., Half of Muni Surveillance Cameras Fail in Audit, San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 29, 2009, n.p., accessed online. The onboard video surveillance equipment on more than half of San Francisco Muni’s buses and trains was not fully operational when the transit agency ordered an emergency audit after the stabbing of an 11-year-old boy on a city bus. The entire fleet, with the exception of cable cars and streetcars, is outfitted with cameras, but the inspection found that of the approximately 960 vehicles with surveillance devices, 22% were deemed completely nonfunctional and an additional 30% only partially functional. The audit found a range of problems, including blurry images, vandalized cameras, poor sound, broken data packs, bad cables, and inoperable recorders. George, B. and N. Whatford, The Regulation of Transport Security Post 9/11, Security Journal, Vol. 20, 2007, pp. 158–170. This paper explores regulatory initiatives that have emerged in aviation, maritime, and other forms of transport since 9/11. Greenberger, M., The Need for Closed Circuit Television in Mass Transit Systems, Law Enforcement Executive Forum, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2006, pp. 151–155. This paper advocates use of video surveillance by transit systems because they can be used anywhere, can be overt or covert, and can be monitored in real time or for later review. Hess, D.B., Security on Buses and Trains, Journal of Secu- rity Education, Vol. 1, No. 4, 2006, pp. 119–132. This paper reviews research into protecting transit facili- ties and recommends research on technological innovations to prevent and thwart attacks, particularly those that begin to physically and technologically “close” public transit systems and reduce unrestricted access. Identification of Cost-Effective Methods to Improve Security at Transit Operating/Maintenance Facilities and Passenger Stations, FTA-FL-26-71054-03, U.S. Department of Trans- portation, Federal Transit Administration, Washington, D.C., July 2006. This report reviews actions taken since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks by six transit agencies to increase security using cost-effective methods. It contains a sum- mary of the consequences of terrorism on public transporta- tion systems, and provides a literature review. Case studies/ best practices include those employed at Denver’s Regional Transit District (RTD), the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA), the Charlotte Area Transit System (CATS), the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA), the Central Florida Regional Transpor- tation Authority, and Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART). Jenkins, B.M. and B.R. Butterworth, Selective Screening of Rail Passengers, MTI Report 06-07, Norman Y. Mineta

70 International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies Institute, San Jose, Calif., 2007. Focusing on terrorist risks confronting public transpor- tation, this report explores how different forms of passen- ger screening, and particularly selective screening, can be implemented to reduce those risks. Jenkins, B.M., Protecting Surface Transportation Systems and Patrons from Terrorist Activities: Case Studies of Best Security Practices and a Chronology of Attacks, MTI Report 97-04, Norman Y. Mineta International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies Institute, San Jose, Calif., 1997. The first phase of a study by the Mineta Institute on behalf of the U.S.DOT; this report includes case studies of transportation security in Paris, Atlanta, New York City, and by Amtrak; security surveys of nine additional U.S. cities, and an annotated bibliography of transit safety/security- and transit terrorism-related works. Jenkins, B.M., Protecting Public Surface Transportation Against Terrorism and Serious Crime: An Executive Over- view, MTI Report 01-014, Norman Y. Mineta International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies Institute, San Jose, Calif., 2001. This report states that for those who are attempting to kill in quantity and kill indiscriminately, surface transportation offers the ideal target; however, because of the public nature of mass transit, there is often little security with no check- points (unlike airports). It addresses key questions as why the level of vigilance in airports and related facilities is so different from expectations on public surface transportation systems. Jenkins, B.M. and L. Gersten, Protecting Public Surface Transportation Against Terrorism and Serious Crime: Con- tinuing Research on Best Security Practices, MTI Report 01-07, Norman Y. Mineta International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies Institute, San Jose, Calif., 2001. This report continues earlier studies by Jenkins and asso- ciates on best practices to stem terrorist assaults on surface transportation systems worldwide. This study examines security practices in effect at public surface transportation facilities in Tokyo and London—both targets of terror- ist attacks—and in the San Francisco Bay Area and the Santa Clara Valley of California. It updates the chronol- ogy contained in the previous report and adds an annotated bibliography. Leung, S.K., A Review of Safety Strategies of Mass Tran- sit Railway in Hong Kong, Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Master of Arts at the University of Hong Kong, June 1999. http://sunzi.lib. hku.hk/hkuto/view/B3195232X/ft.pdf. Accessed Nov. 18, 2009. This dissertation reviews safety strategies of Hong Kong’s Mass Transit Railway Corporation based on patron- age and coverage of the dense urban area, its comprehensive Safety Management System and the high level of safety on the system. Despite an absence of accident-based fatalities, the study concludes that if an accident were to occur in an underground section of the Mass Transit Railway, it is likely that fatalities would number in the thousands. LaVigne, N.G., Safe Transport: Security by Design on the Washington Metro, in Preventing Mass Transit Crime, Ron- ald V. Clarke, Ed., Criminal Justice Press, Monsey, N.Y., 1996, pp. 163–197. This article reviews the WMATA safety and security design features that incorporated CPTED principles and electronic video surveillance since the transit system’s inception in 1976, leading many at the time to consider it the safest subway system in the world. Longmore-Etheridge, A., Security Works Minding the Road, Security Management, Sep. 1995, pp. 24–25. In a use of video surveillance that is today taken for granted, in 1994 an onboard bus surveillance system was instrumental in the capture and prosecution of an armed man who had hidden in the bus and forced the driver to take him to downtown Savannah, Georgia. Loukaitou-Sideris, A., A. Bornstein, C. Fink, L. Samuels, and S. Gerami, How of Ease Women’s Fears of Transporta- tion Environments: Case Studies and Best Practices, MTI Report 09-01, Norman Y. Mineta International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies Institute, San Jose, Calif., Oct. 2009. This report summarizes research on women’s transit fears and how safety concerns influence travel decisions. Through a literature review, focus groups, and questionnaires, it identifies women’s perspectives and needs regarding tran- sit safety; through a survey of 131 U.S transit operators, assesses if the needs are being met and describes programs and best practices from the United States and overseas that address women’s concerns. Among the findings are women passengers have distinct travel needs that not well addressed by transit agencies. Loukaitou-Sideris, A., B.D. Taylor, and C.N.Y. Fink, Rail Transit Security in an International Context: Lessons from Four Cities, Urban Affairs Review, Vol. 41, No. 6, 2006, pp. 727–748. This article draws from interviews with rail transit security officials, architects, and engineers responsible for designing and operating systems in London, Paris, Tokyo, and Madrid. The interviewees report on a mix of strategies to balance the trade-offs between security and openness and attractiveness of their systems, making coordination between transit agencies and police/intelligence agencies a crucial component of security planning.

71 Luczak, M., Smart Security Strategies, Railway Age, Apr., 2006, pp. 46–47. According to LU Managing Director Tim O’Toole, you have to invest in people and rely on them; you have to invest in technology, but do not rely on it. O’Toole offered attend- ees of the second-annual Railway Security Forum & Expo lessons learned, emphasizing the importance of commu- nications, not just technology. To secure LU, the agency is upgrading its 300 cameras from analog to digital and will eventually have 12,000 installed. Mackay, D., The Changing Nature of Public-Space CCTV, Security Journal, Vol. 19 (2006), pp. 128–142. Public-space CCTV has been regarded as a crime preven- tion tool that assists in reducing crime and has been scruti- nized for its potential to infringe civil liberties. Research has concentrated on trying to fit its outputs into a matrix to make sense of the problems with recorded crime figures and overlap with other crime reduction measures, resulting in inadequate research into the activities and outputs of camera control rooms. As a result, public-space cameras systems now participate in activities than their original task of assist- ing the police. Maier, P. and J. Malone, TCRP Synthesis 38: Electronic Surveillance Technology on Transit Vehicles: A Synthesis of Transit Practices, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2001. Based on questionnaire data, a literature review, and case studies, this report reviews existing and emerging CCTV technologies for the transit environment. Considerable tech- nical information is presented; the descriptions of systems and terminology are particularly useful for those with little knowledge of the technical aspects and requirements of installing video systems. Műller, C. and D. Boos, Zurich Main Railway Station: A Typology of Public CCTV Systems, Surveillance & Society, Vol. 2, No. 2 & 3, 2004, pp. 161–176. This article presents a case study of the use of CCTV at the Zurich railroad station, the largest in Switzerland, as it is used by passengers, shoppers, and those defined as trespassers. Myhre, M.L. and F. Rosso, Designing for Security in Météor: A Projected New Métro Line in Paris, in Preventing Mass Transit Crime, Ronald V. Clarke, Ed., Criminal Justice Press, Monsey, N.Y., 1996, pp. 199–216. This article compares security features in the plan for Météor, the new Paris Métro line, with those of the existing system and with WMATA and the Hong Kong subway; it found that Météor included a wider range of SCP measures than existing Métros, WMATA, or Hong Kong, and that its security features were consistent with principles of CPTED. Nakanishi, Y., TCRP Synthesis 80: Transit Security Update: A Synthesis of Transit Practices, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2009. An updating of the Needle and Cobb’s 1997 Improving Transit Security (TCRP Synthesis 21), this report covers traditional crime and terrorism, which was not included in the earlier report. Based on a survey of transit agencies, case studies, and a literature review, it updates information on security measures and practices; perception of crime, including terrorism; and counterterrorism security mea- sures and practices, including surveillance and intrusion detection policies. Nieto, M., K. Johnston-Dodds, and C.W. Simmons, Public and Private Applications of Video Surveillance and Bio- metric Technologies, CRB-02-006, California Research Bureau, Sacramento, 2002. In a survey of CCTV and biometric security systems domestically and internationally, the researchers found that an increasing number of cities, schools, transit districts and public housing are deploying surveillance systems. An ear- lier (1997) survey found that only 13 city police departments in the country used surveillance systems, primarily to moni- tor pedestrian traffic in downtown and residential districts, but that since then, technological advances, declining costs, and heightened security concerns following the 9/11 attacks have led to rapid diffusion of both surveillance and biomet- ric technologies. Also discusses applications and legal issues surrounding the technologies. Nieto, M., Public Video Surveillance: Is It an Effective Crime Prevention Tool? CRB-97-005, California Research Bureau, Sacramento, June 1997. This report examines uses of surveillance by public and private entities to prevent and discourage crime, including law enforcement practices, conditions which warrant video surveillance, legal and constitutional implications of using video surveillance, and tentative conclusions on whether the technology has benefited public housing, transit authorities, and educational institutions. Plant, J.F. and R.R. Young, Securing and Protecting Amer- ica’s Railroad System: U.S. Railroad and Opportunities for Terrorist Threats. A Report Prepared For Citizens For Rail Safety, Inc., The Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg, June 2007. Suggests ways public policy and rail operations can be better directed to meet the challenges of terrorist activity. One of the few studies that looks at both passenger and freight rail, recommendations include congressional action to pass comprehensive rail security legislation and to estab- lish a national commission on rail security. Other recom- mendations include better coordination among the many law enforcement agencies involved in rail protection, enhanced

72 training for railroad employees, and greater emphasis on the threats and liability issues presented by trespassers. Platt, J.F., ed., Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration, Jeremy F. Platt, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 2007. This 32-chapter handbook covers a wide range of issues facing transit managers. Section 5 includes six chapters on security and protection of transit systems. Of these, two discuss the roles of the Department of Defense and the Department of Homeland Security in rail security, and one considers issues facing transit managers since the Madrid and London transit system terrorist bombings. Polzin, S.E., Security Considerations in Transportation Planning (A White Paper for Southern Transportation Cen- ter), Center for Urban Transportation Research, University of South Florida, Tampa, no year. This report explores the implications of enhanced secu- rity concerns on transportation planning with the expec- tation that security concerns will significantly influence how transportation facilities and services are provided. It is intended to foster discussion and facilitate accommodat- ing issues such as enhanced environmental concern, social equity, evolving technologies and multimodal consider- ations, the inclusion of demand management strategies, and various other new goals and considerations. Ratcliffe, J., Problem-Oriented Guides for Police: Video Surveillance of Public Places, Response Guides Series No. 4, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., 2006. A primer on the use of video as a problem-oriented polic- ing response to crime problems; most of the evaluations are from Great Britain but there is a description of cameras out- side the central train station in Oslo, Norway, to combat drug activity. Redmon, J., Atlanta Seeks to Add 500 Surveillance Cam- eras, The Atlanta-Journal Constitution, Oct. 24, 2009, n.p., accessed online. City officials were seeking $13.7 million in federal funds for cameras after a series of high-profile crimes; not tran- sit-specific but addresses issues that are relevant to transit systems. Roman, A., Securing Rail Systems from the Ground Up, Metro Magazine, Apr. 2009, pp. 40–43. This article provides a brief review of how Austin’s Capi- tal Metro and Phoenix-based Valley Metro were able to inte- grate CPTED and surveillance into their systems beginning with their initial design phases. Sahm, C., Hard Won Lessons: Transit Security. New York: Safe Cities Project, The Manhattan Institute for Policy Research in conjunction with the Police Institute-Rutgers, Newark, N.J., 2006. Based on conference presentations in 2005 that brought together law enforcement officials to share best practices on transit security, this collection includes material from presenters Sir Ian Johnston, Chief Constable of the British Transport Police; Jeroen Weimar, Director of Policing and Enforcement for the London Transport System; and officials from NJT Police, Amtrak, the PANY&NJ, and DHS. Sanderson, C., A. Bigdeli, T.S., S. Chen, E. Berglund, and B.C. Lovell, Intelligent CCTV for Mass Transport Security: Challenges and Opportunities for Video and Face Process- ing, Electronic Letters on Computer Vision and Image Anal- ysis, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2007, pp. 30–41. As a result of the number of cameras installed, many sites have abandoned human monitoring and only record for investigations. A sought-after capability is “face in the crowd” recognition in public spaces, including transit cen- ters. This paper evaluates approaches to face recognition, proposes adaptations and modifications, and discusses legal challenges surrounding its implementation. Schulz, D.M. and S. Gilbert, Developing Strategies to Fight Crime and Fear, The Police Chief, July 1995, pp. 20–27. Based on a TRB study into deployment of uniformed and plainclothes officers on transit properties, this article provides an overview of policing techniques and strategies employed by a number of large and small transit agencies. Scott, D., Policing Regional Mass Transit: The SEPTA Sys- tem, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 78, No. 7, July 2009, 10 pp., accessed online. This case study, written for law enforcement professionals, outlines the steps taken by SEPTA to establish policies to maxi- mum safety and security of its passengers, employees, and the public and to protect the transit agency from loss or damage. Smith, M.J., Addressing the Security Needs of Women Pas- sengers on Public Transport, Security Journal, Vol. 21, 2008, pp.117–133. This article presents a framework for analyzing security needs of women passengers, summarizing research in four areas: (1) women’s reported victimization, (2) calculating the risk of being a crime victim, (3) the rationality of women s fears of crime and disorder, and (4) the need for crime pre- vention measures to address these security-related issues. The “whole journey” approach highlights aspects of the trip for women that require special attention. Track and Tunnel Intrusion Detection: White Paper, Vidient Systems, Inc., Santa Clara, Calif., 2009. Report on the technological capabilities required to pro- vide track and tunnel intrusion detection, including immedi- ate notification and assessment and full-time protection.

73 Zurawski, N. and S. Czerwinski, Crime, Maps and Meaning: Views from a Survey on Safety and CCTV in Germany, Sur- veillance & Society, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2008, pp. 51–72. After examining what people knew about video technol- ogy and what meaning they ascribed to it, this article found that perception of “dangerous spaces” has resulted in CCTV being seen as suitable for safeguarding crime hot spots. Although the authors reject the expansion of CCTV, they view it as a way to counter crime in particular settings.