Science and Technology in the Academic Enterprise: Status, Trends, and Issues (1989)

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CONCLUSION 28 Notes. 1. For a full discussion of the historical development of the academic research activities in other industrialized nations, see the symposium volume, The University Research Enterprise within The Industrialized Nations: Comparative Historical Perspectives, Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable, November, 1989. 2. Discussion of the research enterprise from 1890 to 1940 is derived from Roger L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities: 1900–1940, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. 3. See: Bush, Vannevar, Science-The Endless Frontier: A Report to The President on A Program for Postwar Scientific Research, July, 1945 (reprint: Washington: National Science Foundation, 1980); U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Military Affairs, Subcommittee on War Mobilization, Hearings on Science Legislation, 1945 (Gilgore Report); and Steelman, John R., Science and Public Policy: A program for the Nation, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1947. 4. President's Science Advisory Committee, Scientific Progress, The Universities, and The Federal Government, 1960, pg.10–11. (the Seaborg Report). 5. National Academy of Sciences, Federal Support of Basic Research in Institutions of Higher Learning, 1964, pg.92. 6. Research personnel (full-time equivalent) include those scientists and engineers (within the physical sciences, engineering, environmental sciences, life and health sciences, mathematics and computer sciences, and social and behavioral sciences) conducting funded (separately budgeted) academic R&D, estimated by the following: the fraction of faculty time spent in those research activities, non-faculty scientists and engineers employed to conduct research in campus facilities (except FFRDCs), post-doctoral researchers working in academic institutions, and graduate students paid as research assistants. As used in this report, doctoral universities are institutions that awarded an average of at least 10 Ph.D.s per year in the natural sciences and engineering between 1966 and 1986. There are 185 such institutions; 116 are public universities and 69 are private. 7. See Smith, Bruce L.R. and Joseph J. Karlesky, The State of Academic Science, New York: Change Magazine Press, 1977; Carnegie Corporation of New York et.al., Research Universities and the National Interest: A Report from Fifteen University Presidents, New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1977; Sloan Commission on Government and Higher Education, “Federal Support for Academic Research,” A Program for Renewed Partnership, New York: Sloan Foundation, 1980. 8. For public universities, such funds are in part derived from state and local government sources. Reported university-generated internal funds for research and development include institutional funds for separately budgeted research and development, cost-sharing, and under-recovery of indirect costs. They are derived from (1) general purpose state or local government appropriations, (2) general purpose grants from industry, foundations, or other outside sources, (3) tuition and fees, and (4) endowment income. See National Science Foundation, Academic Science and Engineering R&D Funds, 1987. 9. In 1986, unrecovered indirect R&D costs for public universities, as a percent of total R&D costs, was 10.7 percent—compared with 5.2 percent for private universities. Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Policy Research and Analysis. 10. See: State Technology Programs in the United States: 1988, Minnesota Department of Trade and Economic Development, Office of Science and Technology, 1988. 11. Compared to 4.7 percent annual growth for the top 20 universities. Source: National Science Foundation, Division of Policy Research and Analysis. 12. National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in U.S. Science and Engineering: History, Status, and Outlook, Washington, 1986. 13. In 1985, at the major private research universities, non-faculty appointments averaged 22 percent of doctoral (non-postdoctoral) personnel in the sciences and engineering, reaching 38 percent in physics and astronomy, 35 percent in computer science, and 40 percent in environmental sciences. For major public research universities, in 1985 non-faculty averaged 12 percent of employment of doctoral scientists and engineers. Source: Survey of Doctoral Recipients, National Research Council, Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel. 14. National Science Foundation, SRS, special tabulations. 

CONCLUSION 29 15. Assuming mid-level projections of the 18- to -22 year old cohort and current enrollment rates. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 952, “Projections of the Population of the United States by Age, Sex, and Race: 1983–2080.” 16. To maintain the 1985 volume, the participation rate would have to increase to about 65 per thousand 22-year olds. For the last 15-years, participation rates have fluctuated between 40 and 50 per thousand. During the next decade, to maintain current levels of baccalaureate degrees in the sciences and engineering, a significant increase in the rate at which 22-year olds attain science and engineering degrees would be required. See: Nurturing Science and Engineering Talent: A Discussion Paper, Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable, July 1987. 17. See: Nurturing Science and Engineering Talent: A Discussion Paper, Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable, July 1987, pgs 7–12. 18. National Science Foundation, Academic Research Equipment in Selected Science/Engineering Fields: 1982–1983 to 1985–1986, 1988. 19. National Science Foundation, Scientific and Engineering Research Facilities at Universities and Colleges, September 1988. 20. Between 1980 and 1988, average compensation for academic research personnel (faculty and non-faculty) has increased by nearly 25 percent, accounting for inflation. Source: National Foundation, Division of Policy Research and Analysis.