National Academies Press: OpenBook
« Previous: II Course Modules
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

III
Content Outlines

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

Introduction

This section of the guide contains detailed content outlines of the subjects covered in the recommended modules (Part II). The material in the modules is cross-referenced to appropriate subtopics in this section. The number preceding the decimal point indicates the chapter, and the number(s) following the decimal point indicates the place within the chapter that the information appears. Thus, 1.1 indicates the first entry in chapter 1 of part III, and 1.2.1 indicates the first subentry under the second entry in chapter 1.

Content experts asked to deliver information or teach skills should be provided with both the module outline and the corresponding outlines in this section to determine the intended depth of presentation. These outlines can also be used to select alternative instructional materials (e.g., audiovisual, computer-aided, and independent-study). Some sections can also be used as handouts. Permission for limited reproduction of portions of this book for educational purposes, but not for sale, may be granted on receipt of a written request to the National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

1
Laws, Regulations, and Policies That Impact on the Care and Use of Animals

1.1 Federal Regulations and Policies Affecting the Care and Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education

1

1.1.1

Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs)

 

1.1.1.1

Citation: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–4 (9 CFR 1–4)

 

1.1.1.2

Law implemented: U.S. Code, Title 7, Sections 2131 et seq. (7 USC 2131 et seq.), popularly called the Animal Welfare Act; most recently amended in 1985 by Public Law (PL) 99-198

 

1.1.1.3

Enforcing Agency: U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care (REAC)

 

1.1.1.4

Research institutions to which AWRs are applicable: All research facilities that use or intend to use live animals (as defined by the regulations; see 1.1.1.5) in research, testing, and education

 

1.1.1.5

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 1: Definition of Terms

 

 

• Amended regulations became effective October 30, 1989

 

 

• Includes in the definition of animal any warmblooded animal used or intended for use in research, testing, or education except birds; rats of the genus Rattus and mice of the genus Mus bred for use in research; and horses and other farm animals used or intended for use in agricultural research and production

1  

 Because regulations change periodically, it is recommended that the current Code of Federal Regulations be consulted before presenting regulatory material.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

1.1.1.6

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 2

 

 

• Amended regulations became effective October 30, 1989

 

 

• Subparts A, B, and D-I set rules for dealers, exhibitors, and owners of auction sales. Describe requirements for licensing or registration, identification of animals, and recordkeeping; detail responsibilities of the attending veterinarian; and prohibit the purchase, sale, use, or transportation of stolen animals

 

 

• Subpart C sets rules for research facilities; requires compliance with standards in Part 3

 

1.1.1.7

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 3

 

 

• Establishes minimum standards for animal husbandry, care, treatment, and transportation

 

 

• Amended regulations published for guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbits (APHIS, 1990a)

 

 

• Proposed rules published for dogs, cats, and nonhuman primates (APHIS, 1990b)

 

 

- Revise standards for handling, care, treatment, and transportation of dogs, cats, and nonhuman primates

 

 

- Set standards for exercise and socialization for dogs

 

 

- Set standards for environment enhancement to promote psychological well-being of nonhuman primates

 

1.1.1.8

Penalties

 

 

• Animal Welfare Act (7 USC 2143f; 2149)

 

 

-The institution can be fined up to $2,500 for each violation of the Animal Welfare Act or the AWRs

 

 

- An order can be issued that the institution cease and desist violations of the act or the AWRs

 

 

- REAC can request federal funding agencies to suspend or revoke funding for research facilities that are in violation of the act or the AWRs

 

 

- REAC can temporarily suspend the licenses of dealers, exhibitors, or owners of auction sales in violation of the act or the AWRs

 

 

• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Part 4: Rules of Practice

 

 

- Confers authority for adjudicatory proceedings as defined in CFR, Title 7, Subtitle A, Part 1, Subpart H

 

 

- Gives additional authority for suspending licenses

1.1.2

Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (PHS, 1986)

 

1.1.2.1

Description

 

 

• Intended to ensure that PHS grantees and contractors care for and use animals humanely

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Has been in existence since 1971; underwent major revision in 1985 and minor revision in 1986

 

 

• Implements and supplements the U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training (see Appendix I)

 

1.1.2.2

Law implemented: U.S. Code, Title 42, Section 289d (42 USC 289d); was amended in 1985 to cover the care and use of animals in research by PL 99–158, the Health Research Extension Act

 

1.1.2.3

Oversight by the PHS Office for Protection from Research Risks (OPRR)

 

1.1.2.4

Activities to which policy is applicable: All PHS-conducted or supported activities involving the use of animals; an animal is defined as ''any live, vertebrate animal used or intended for use in research, research training, experimentation, or biological testing or for related purposes"

 

1.1.2.5

Requirements

 

 

• Compliance with the AWRs and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which was revised most recently in 1985 (NRC, 1985)

 

 

• A written statement of Assurance, including

 

 

— A description of the animal care and use program

 

 

— The qualifications, authority, and responsibility of the program's veterinarian(s)

 

 

— A list of members of the institutional animal care and use committee and procedures these members will follow to fulfill the requirements of PHS policy

 

 

— A summary description of the institution's educational or training programs in humane animal care and use

 

 

— An assurrance that the institution is accredited by the American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care or has been evaluated by the institution

 

1.1.2.6

Penalty for noncompliance: Revocation of Assurance and loss of PHS support for entire institution

1.1.3

Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards

 

1.1.3.1

Prescribes good laboratory practice in several sections of the Code of Federal Regulations

 

 

• 40 CFR 792 concerns studies on health effects, environmental effects, and chemical fate testing of substances regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency pursuant to 15 USC 2603 et seq. (Toxic Substances Control Act)

 

 

• 40 CFR 160 concerns studies that support or are intended to support applications for research or marketing permits for pesticides regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency pursuant to 7 USC 136a, 136c, 136f, 1136q, 136v(c) (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) and 21 USC 346a, 348 (Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• 21 CFR 58 concerns studies that support or are intended to support applications for research or marketing permits regulated by the Food and Drug Administration pursuant to 21 USC 406, 408–409, 502–503, 505–507, 510, 512–516, 518–520, 706, 801 (Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act) and 42 USC 351, 354–360F (Public Health Service Act)

 

1.1.3.2

Main concern is with reliability of research results

 

1.1.3.3

Subpart C of each of the GLPs

 

 

• Requires separate rooms or areas for separation of species, isolation of individual projects, quarantine, and routine or specialized housing

 

 

• Requires, as appropriate, separate rooms or areas for diagnosis, treatment, and control of diseases

 

 

• Requires, as needed, storage areas for feed, bedding, supplies, and equipment

 

1.1.3.4

Subpart E of each of the GLPs

 

 

• Requires written standard operating procedures for housing, feeding, handling, and care of animals

 

 

• Requires appropriate identification of animals

 

 

— 21 CFR 58.90, was amended effective May 22, 1989

 

 

— Amendment prohibits toe clipping as a means of identification

 

 

• Requires extensive recordkeeping on the environment of the animal rooms

1.2 Selected Requirements of AWRs and PHS Policy

1.2.1

Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)

 

1.2.1.1

Membership

 

 

• Must be appointed by institution's chief executive officer

 

 

• Number of members: Chairman and at least two additional members (9 CFR 2.31); Chairman and at least four additional members (PHS, 1986)

 

 

• At least one member must be a doctor of veterinary medicine with training or experience in laboratory animal science and medicine and with direct or delegated program responsibility for activities involving animals (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

 

 

• At least one member must not be affiliated with the facility other than as a committee member and must not be a member of the immediate family of anyone affiliated with the institution (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

 

 

• At least one member must be a practicing scientist with experience in research involving animals (PHS, 1986)

 

 

• At least one member must be a nonscientist (PHS, 1986)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

1.2.1.2

Functions (see also content outline section 4.2)

 

 

• Reviews semiannually institutional animal facilities and the institutional program for humane animal care and use and reports on these reviews to the institutional official

 

 

• Reviews and approves protocols and modifications to protocols

 

 

• Reviews concerns about care and use of animals

 

 

• Suspends activities found no longer to be in compliance with the AWRs and PHS policy

 

 

• Makes recommendations to the responsible institutional official concerning the animal care and use program, animal facilities, or personnel training

1.2.2

Training and Instruction

 

1.2.2.1

Must be made available to all personnel involved in the care, treatment, and use of species covered by the AWRs and PHS policy

 

1.2.2.2

Must include at least the following areas

 

 

• Humane methods of animal maintenance and experimentation

 

 

• Methods that limit the use of animals or minimize distress

 

 

• Proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers for any species used by the facility

 

 

• Methods for reporting deficiencies in care and treatment

 

 

• Utilization of services, such as the National Agricultural Library, that provide information that could prevent unintended or unnecessary duplication of animal research and details about appropriate methods of animal care and use, alternatives to the use of live animals in research, and the intent and requirements of the Animal Welfare Act

1.2.3

Records that facilities must keep

 

1.2.3.1

Records of the IACUC

 

 

• Minutes of meetings

 

 

• Records of applications

 

 

• Proposed significant changes in animal care and use and whether approval was given or withheld

 

 

• Semiannual reports

 

1.2.3.2

Records on the description, identification, purchase, sale, transportation, and previous ownership of live dogs and cats (AWRs)

 

1.2.3.3

Records of accrediting body determinations (PHS policy)

1.2.4

Required reports

 

1.2.4.1

AWRs (9 CFR 2.31, 2.36)

 

 

• Requires annual report to REAC made by the facility and certified by the responsible institutional official or the chief executive officer

 

 

— Must contain assurance that professionally acceptable standards were followed in care, treatment, and use; that principal investigators have considered alternatives to painful procedures; and that the facility is adhering to the standards and regulations and has IACUC approval for all exceptions

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

— Must state the location of all facilities where animals, as defined by the AWRs, were housed or used

 

 

— Must give the numbers and common names of animals, as defined by the AWRs, used in nonpainful or nondistressing procedures, painful or distressing procedures in which appropriate pain-relieving or tranquilizing drugs were given, and painful or distressing procedures in which pain-relieving or tranquilizing drugs were withheld because they would have interfered with experimental results

 

 

— Must give the numbers and common names of animals, as defined by the AWRs, bred for use in research, testing, and education but not yet used for such purposes

 

 

• Requires prompt notification, with a full explanation, of any suspended activity

 

1.2.4.2

PHS policy (PHS, 1986)

 

 

• Requires annual report to OPRR by the IACUC through the institutional official

 

 

— Must note significant changes in the institution's programs, facilities, or animal care and use program

 

 

— Must list changes in IACUC membership

 

 

— Must provide dates of semiannual IACUC evaluations

 

 

• Requires prompt notification with a full explanation of

 

 

— Any serious or continuing noncompliance with PHS policy or the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals

 

 

— Any suspension of activity by the IACUC

1.3 State and Local Regulations Affecting the Care and Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education (if applicable)

1.4 Institutional Policies Affecting the Care and Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education

1.4.1

Policies that affect research protocols

1.4.2

Policy on dealing with alleged misconduct

REFERENCES

APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). 1990a. 9 CFR Part 3. Animal welfare; guinea pigs, hamsters, and rabbits. Fed. Regist. 55(136):28879–28884.

APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). 1990b. 9 CRF Part 3. Animal welfare; standards; proposed rule. Fed. Regist. 55(158):33448–33531.


Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Available from: Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, APHIS, USDA, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animals Welfare),

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

Amendments to Part 3. 1990a. Fed. Regist. 55(136):28879–28884.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animals Welfare), Proposed amendments to Part 3. 1990b. Fed. Regist. 55(158):33448–33531.

NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 83 pp.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

2
Ethical and Scientific Issues

It is important that the person who presents the issues discussed in this chapter emphasizes the need for tolerance of differing points of view.

2.1 Definitions

2.1.1

Ethics: A discipline within philosophy concerned with the examination and establishment of criteria for making judgments concerning value (good and bad) and judgments concerning responsibility and duty (right and wrong)

2.1.2

Applied ethics: Ethical reflection, as defined above, applied to a specific area of concern, e.g., the use of laboratory animals

2.2 Conceptual Framework for Ethical Decisions (Robb, 1989)

2.2.1

A framework provides a method or formal structure for making decisions

2.2.2

Utilitarian or teleological ethical approach to decision making

 

2.2.2.1

Involves risk/benefit analysis; the best action is determined by the effects of the action in a particular circumstance or on the effects on all concerned (the social utility of the action)

 

2.2.2.2

Can be used by both animal-rights and animal-use advocates

 

2.2.2.3

Is too often based on short-term rather than long-term effects

2.2.3

Deontological ethical approach to decision making

 

2.2.3.1

Determines an action by comparison with a highest duty (e.g., respect for dignity, beneficience, justice) or with universal moral obligations derived from cultural or religious principles

 

2.2.3.2

Is used primarily by animal-rights advocates

 

2.2.3.3

By definition, ignores the short- and long-term consequences of an action; however, in actual experience, moral principles have exceptions

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

2.3 Arguments Used by those Advocating the Humane Use of Animals for Human Purposes (Caplan, 1984)

2.3.1

Research with animals has made possible the advancement of knowledge in the medical and veterinary sciences in ways that otherwise would not have been possible (NRC, 1988)

 

2.3.1.1

Benefits of basic research

 

2.3.1.2

Benefits to health and welfare of humans and animals

2.3.2

Society accepts the idea of a hierarchy of species in its attitude toward other animal species (NRC, 1988, p. 16)

2.3.3

Humankind has the moral responsibility to enhance the well-being of other humans and also the moral duty to use wisely and prudently all resources that nature provides, including the use of animals for good purposes

2.4 Arguments Used by Animal-Rights Advocates (Singer, 1975; Regan, 1983)

2.4.1

Animals are intelligent and sentient beings, with feelings not too unlike our own

2.4.2

Animals have inherent value and have a right to fulfill their destiny as independent beings

2.4.3

As independent beings, they are "subjects-of-a-life," that is, they have desires and intentions that should be respected

2.4.4

Therefore, humankind has no right to exploit them for human purposes because this violates their integrity as separate species

2.5 The Role of Laws, Regulations, and Policies

2.5.1

Function to prescribe common standards that prevent the abuse of humane standards for the care of animals

2.5.2

Recent policies and guidelines have refined earlier standards and have had a salutary effect on the well-being of laboratory animals

2.6 Suggested Ethical Principles (See U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training; Appendix I)

2.6.1

Design procedures relevant to the improvement of health, advancement of knowledge, or good of society (Principle II)

2.6.2

Use appropriate models and consider alternatives (Principle III)

2.6.3

Avoid or minimize pain and distress (Principle IV)

2.6.4

When painful procedures are necessary, use appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia (Principle V)

2.6.5

Humanely kill animals that would suffer severe or chronic pain (Principle VI)

2.6.6

If an exception to these principles is necessary, it should be assessed and approved by a review group such as the institutional animal care and use committee (Principle IX)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

REFERENCES

Caplan, A. L. 1984. Beastly conduct: Ethical issues in animal experimentation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 406:159–169.


NRC (National Research Council). 1988. Benefits derived from the use of animals. Pp. 27–37 in Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. A report of the Commission on Life Sciences and Institute of Medicine Committee on the Use of Laboratory Animals in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.


Regan, T. 1983. The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley: University of California Press. 425 pp.

Robb, J. W. 1989. A Medical Ethics Primer. ILAR News 31(4):21–27.


Singer, P. 1975. Animal Liberation. A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals. New York: Avon Books. 297 pp.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

3
Alternatives

3.1 Definitions

3.1.1

Alternatives (Russell and Burch, 1959)

 

3.1.1.1

Replacement: Substitution of insentient material for animals or substitution of a lower species, which might be less sensitive to pain and distress, for a higher species

 

3.1.1.2

Reduction: Reduction in the numbers of animals used to obtain information of a certain amount and precision

 

3.1.1.3

Refinement: Decrease in the incidence or severity of pain and distress in those animals that are used

3.1.2

Biomedical model: A surrogate system, either animate or inanimate, that mimics or is predictive about a biologic process or condition of interest

3.2 Rationale for Considering Alternatives

3.2.1

Regulatory

 

3.2.1.1

AWRs (9 CFR 2)

 

 

• Principal investigators must consider alternatives to any procedure likely to produce pain or distress

 

 

• Assurance that alternatives have been considered must be presented in the institution's annual report and when the institution is inspected by the USDA

 

 

• Training must be provided by the institution on research or testing methods that minimize or eliminate the use of animals or limit their pain or distress

 

 

• The National Agricultural Library, in cooperation with the National Library of Medicine, must provide information that could prevent unintended duplication of experiments and that could reduce or replace the use of animals

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

3.2.1.2

PHS policy: Institutions must give assurances satisfactory to the director of NIH that they are making available to scientists, animal technicians, and other personnel instruction or training on availability and use of research or testing methods that limit the use of animals or limit pain and distress (PHS, 1986)

 

3.2.1.3

Institutional policy

 

 

• Animal care and use protocol form requirements

 

 

• Review and approval of protocols by the institutional animal care and use committee

3.2.2

Ethical

 

3.2.2.1

Do the potential results of the project justify its likely effects on the animal? (Tannenbaum, 1989)

 

3.2.2.2

Is the species endangered or threatened?

3.2.3

Humane (OTA, 1986)

 

3.2.3.1

Can procedures be modified to prevent or minimize pain and distress?

 

3.2.3.2

Can analgesics, anesthetics, tranquilizers, or sedatives be used to provide relief from pain and distress?

 

3.2.3.3

Can a less sensitive species be used?

3.2.4

Economic

 

3.2.4.1

What are the costs to purchase, house, and care for the animals?

 

3.2.4.2

What are the costs for equipment and supplies for a nonanimal model?

 

3.2.4.3

What is the cost for a noninvasive technique such as ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging?

 

3.2.4.4

Have nonanimal alternatives been used to screen compounds for efficacy, thus reducing the number of compounds that require testing in animals?

3.2.5

Scientific

 

3.2.5.1

Does the model reliably and accurately reproduce the process or characteristic being studied?

 

3.2.5.2

Is the model readily available to other researchers?

 

3.2.5.3

Is the model well characterized in the literature?

3.3 Nonanimal Research Methods and Models

3.3.1

Literature Search

 

3.3.1.1

Can be used to avoid unnecessary duplication of research

 

3.3.1.2

Can provide a scientific basis for choice of model

3.3.2

Epidemiological Research: Can be used to understand the frequency, distribution, and cause of disease, both infectious and noninfectious, in a given population

3.3.3

Human Subject Research: If morally and legally acceptable, safe, noninvasive methods to test human subjects can replace the use of animals

3.3.4

Cell, tissue, and organ culture systems: Systems derived from humans or animals and then maintained and propagated replace the need to experiment on living animals or reduce the number of animals used

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

3.3.5

Chemical analysis: Radiological binding assays and radioimmunoassays can be substituted for bioassays

3.3.6

Microbiological systems

 

3.3.6.1

Ames mutagenicity/carcinogenicity test, which uses Salmonella typhimurium

 

3.3.6.2

Recombinant DNA studies of gene control using Escherichia coli

3.3.7

Plants: Yeasts, in particular, have been used extensively to study basic molecular mechanisms of interest to cellular and molecular biologists and virologists

3.3.8

Mathematical Systems

 

3.3.8.1

Statistical design

 

 

• Should be applied to all animal research protocols

 

 

• Can lead to increases or decreases in the number of animals required in a protocol

 

 

• Includes consideration of factors such as statistical power, randomization, and compounding variables

 

3.3.8.2

Computer modeling and analysis

 

 

• Computers can be used to study molecular structure and activity relationships

 

 

• Models are based on in vivo data expressed in a mathematical equation where parameters can be manipulated to simulate a biological effect

 

 

• In vivo systems are required to validate conclusions

3.4 Factors Influencing Model Selection

3.4.1

Scientific considerations (Animal Alternatives Study Task Force, 1988).

 

3.4.1.1

Relevancy: Models must have one or more features that resemble the original system

 

3.4.1.2

Reliability: Models must allow investigators to obtain consistent, reproducible results

 

3.4.1.3

Simplicity: Simpler models usually provide fewer variables than a whole human or animal and reduce the complexity that can obsure understanding of a specific process

 

3.4.1.4

Accessibility: Models must be readily available to the research community and permit manipulation using contemporary technology

3.4.2

Ethical considerations

 

3.4.2.1

Safety of research personnel and human subjects

 

3.4.2.2

Conservation of species

 

3.4.2.3

Humane care and use of animals

3.4.3

Economic considerations

 

3.4.3.1

Purchase of animals

 

3.4.3.2

Animal maintenance (food, caging, labor)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

3.4.3.3

Supplies, equipment, facilities, and labor for the conduct of animal research

 

3.4.3.4

Time required to perform studies

3.5 Utilization of Services

3.5.1

Extramural

 

3.5.1.1

National Agricultural Library (see Appendix II)

 

3.5.1.2

Centers for alternatives

 

 

• Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (see Part IV, section 1)

 

 

• Rockefeller University Laboratory for In Vitro Toxicologic Assay Development

 

 

• Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments (FRAME)

 

3.5.1.3

Publications on alternatives (see Part IV, section 2)

3.5.2

Intramural

 

3.5.2.1

Laboratory animal resources staff

 

3.5.2.2

Library

REFERENCES

Animal Alternatives Study Task Force. 1988. Report of the Animal Alternatives Study Task Force. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California. 54 pp. plus appendixes. Available from: Office of the President, University of California, Berkeley, CA.


Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). 1986. Alternatives to Animal Use in Research, Testing, and Education. Publ. No. OTA-BA-273. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. 441 pp.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892


Russell, W. M. S., and R. L. Burch. 1959. Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas. 238 pp.


Tannenbaum, J. 1989. The veterinarian and animal research. Pp. 312–341 in Veterinary Ethics. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

4
Responsibilities of the Institution, the Animal Care and Use Committee, and the Research and Veterinary Staffs

4.1 Responsibilities of the Institution

4.1.1

Establishes lines of authority and responsibility

 

4.1.1.1

Chief executive officer

 

4.1.1.2

Institutional official, if different from the chief executive officer (see 9 CFR 1.1; PHS, 1986, part III)

 

4.1.1.3

Animal resource director, if different from the attending veterinarian

 

4.1.1.4

Attending veterinarian (see 9 CFR 1.1, 2.33)

 

4.1.1.5

Facility manager: Clarify reporting relationship to institutional official and/or animal resource director

 

4.1.1.6

Principal investigator

 

4.1.1.7

Research staff

 

4.1.1.8

Others, as appropriate to the institution

4.1.2

Establishes and disseminates institutional policy

 

4.1.2.1

Policy on care and use of animals: Discuss the institution's commitment to

 

 

• An environment conducive to high-quality research, humane treatment of animals, and safety of personnel

 

 

• Compliance with federal, state, and local laws, regulations, and policies

 

4.1.2.2

Policy for dealing with alleged misconduct

4.1.3

Provides appropriate facilities for animal housing and care

4.1.4

Guarantees sufficient sources of resources to support key personnel and facilities

4.1.5

Appoints the members of the institutional animal care and use committee (see also 1.2.1)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

4.1.6

Ensures that all scientists, research technicians, animal care technicians, and other personnel involved in the care and use of animals are qualified to perform their duties (see 9 CFR 2.32)

 

4.1.6.1

Provides training in the following areas:

 

 

• Humane methods of animal care and use

 

 

• The concept, availability, and use of research or testing methods that reduce the use of animals or minimize pain and distress

 

 

• Proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers

 

 

• Mechanisms by which deficiencies in animal care and treatment should be reported

 

 

• Use of information services and resources

 

4.1.6.2

Periodically reviews qualifications of personnel

4.1.7

Endeavors to build public confidence in animal research

4.2 Responsibilities of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee(IACUC)

4.2.1

Reviews and approves activities in which animals will be used

 

4.2.1.1

Ensures that experiments are justifiable on a scientific basis

 

4.2.1.2

Ensures that new activities and proposed significant changes in ongoing activities are in compliance with federal regulations and policies (see 9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986, part IV-C)

 

 

• Procedures must comply with the requirement to avoid or minimize pain, discomfort, and distress

 

 

• Principal investigators must have considered alternatives to procedures that could cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress

 

 

• Principal investigators must provide written assurance that the activities do not unnecessarily duplicate previous experiments

 

 

• Procedures that will cause more than momentary or slight pain and distress:

 

 

— Must be performed with appropriate sedatives, analgesics, or anesthetics unless withholding such agents is justified scientifically

 

 

— Must involve consultation with the attending veterinarian

 

 

— Must not include the use of paralytics without anesthesia

 

 

• Animals that will experience severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved must be painlessly killed at the end of the procedure or, if it will not interfere with research results, during the procedure

 

 

• Living conditions must be appropriate for the species of animal and contribute to the health and comfort of the animals

 

 

• Sick animals must receive appropriate medical care provided by a qualified veterinarian

 

 

• Personnel conducting procedures on animals must be appropriately qualified and trained in these procedures

 

 

• All survival surgery must be performed using aseptic procedures, and appropriate pre- and postoperative care must be provided

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Major surgical procedures on all animals except rodents must be performed in facilities intended for that purpose

 

 

• Animals must not be used in more than one major surgical procedure from which they are allowed to recover unless such use is

 

 

— Justified for scientific reasons in writing

 

 

— Required to protect the health or well-being of the animal as determined by the attending veterinarian

 

 

— A special circumstance approved by the administrator of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture

 

 

• Methods of euthanasia must be in compliance with federal regulations and policies

 

4.2.1.3

Conducts continuing reviews of ongoing activities at appropriate intervals, but not less than annually

 

4.2.1.4

Suspends activities not conducted in accordance with IACUC-approved protocols

4.2.2

Evaluates the institutional program for humane care and use of animals and inspects all animal facilities at least once every 6 months (see 9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986, part IV-B)

 

4.2.2.1

Prepares a report on the findings of each evaluation and inspection, including all minority opinions, and submits its report to the institutional official

 

 

• Points out areas in which the institution does not adhere to AWRs and distinguishes significant from minor deficiencies

 

 

• Includes a plan and schedule for correcting the deficiencies

 

4.2.2.2

Reviews and, if warranted, investigates allegations of noncompliance

 

4.2.2.3

Makes recommendations on the animal program, animal facilities, and personnel training to the institutional official

4.3 Responsibilities of the Investigator (The term investigator is used broadly to designate those people responsible for the scientific aspects of projects that use animals in research, testing, or teaching)

4.3.1

Designs experiments

 

4.3.1.1

Selects the appropriate species, model, animal quality, and source; consults with a statistician to determine the minimum number of animals required for valid data analysis

 

4.3.1.2

Considers previous work done in the area of study, using resources such as databases of the National Agricultural Library and National Library of Medicine

 

 

• Considers possible alternatives to living animals as subjects

 

 

• Ensures that studies will not unnecessarily duplicate previous experiments

 

4.3.1.3

Establishes procedures and environments that minimize internal and external influences on experimental animals

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

4.3.1.4

Avoids, prevents, or minimizes animal discomfort, distress, and pain, consistent with sound scientific practice

 

4.3.1.5

Uses appropriate endpoints for studies and acceptable procedures for euthanasia

 

4.3.1.6

Conducts all research in accordance with protocols approved by the IACUC

 

4.3.1.7

Procures all laboratory animals in accordance with federal and institutional regulations and policies

 

4.3.1.8

Maintains adequate records

4.3.2

Ensures staff qualifications and training

 

4.3.2.1

Recruits personnel qualified by background and temperament to work with animals

 

4.3.2.2

Orients personnel to the facility and the scientific study

 

4.3.2.3

Requires that staff members demonstrate skill with the techniques and procedures involved; provides training as needed

 

4.3.2.4

Ensures that staff members are able to recognize signs of disease and distress in animals and know to whom to report any such signs

 

4.3.2.5

Provides or identifies continuing education programs for staff and encourages participation in such programs

4.3.3

Provides for health and safety of personnel

 

4.3.3.1

Ensures that staff have had instruction and training about zoonotic diseases, allergies to animals, occupational health programs, and disease prevention

 

4.3.3.2

Ensures that staff have received detailed instructions on proper procedures for using hazardous substances, including the requirement for protective clothing appropriate for the species of animal and the protocol

4.3.4

Makes provisions for dealing with job-related stress (see also 8.4)

 

4.3.4.1

Identifies activities and procedures that might be stressful to personnel, including euthanasia, long-term studies, and studies using animals generally regarded as pets

 

4.3.4.2

Provides opportunities for stress-reduction training for all employees involved in high-stress activities

 

4.3.4.3

Gives particular attention to reducing stress in inexperienced, naive, and highly emotional employees before and during studies

4.3.5

Maintains a scholarly, sensitive, and respectful environment and behaves in a professional manner

4.3.6

Endeavors to build public confidence in animal research

 

4.3.6.1

Provides a lay-language description of studies and procedures for the IACUC and for other institutional purposes

 

4.3.6.2

Might participate in community programs to promote understanding of the need for and role of animals in research, testing, and teaching

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

4.4 Responsibilities of the Attending Veterinarian (see 9 CFR 2.33)

4.4.1

If so designated by the institution, directs the housing, feeding, and nonmedical care of experimental animals

4.4.2

If so appointed by the institution, serves as a voting member of the IACUC

4.4.3

Ensures the provision of adequate veterinary care for experimental animals

 

4.4.3.1

Establishes appropriate programs to prevent, control, diagnose, and treat diseases and injuries

 

4.4.3.2

Ensures that appropriate pre- and postprocedural care will be provided in accordance with established veterinary medical and nursing procedures

 

4.4.3.3

Ensures that emergency, weekend, and holiday care will be provided

 

4.4.3.4

Ensures that animals will be observed daily to assess their health and well-being and to ensure that problems are reported quickly

4.4.4

Provides guidance to principal investigators and other personnel regarding animal handling, immobilization, anesthesia, analgesia, tranquilization, and euthanasia

REFERENCES

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

5
Pain and Distress

5.1 Definitions

5.1.1

Comfort: A state of physiologic and behavioral homeostasis in which the animal has adapted to its environment and shows normal feeding, drinking, and grooming patterns; social interactions; sleep/wake cycles; and reproductive activity (NRC, in press)

5.1.2

Discomfort: A minimal change in an animal's adaptive level or state of homeostasis as a result of changes in its environment or because of biologic, physical, social, or psychologic alterations (NRC, in press)

5.1.3

Stress: The effect produced by external (e.g., physical and environmental) events or internal (e.g., physiologic or psychologic) factors that are referred to as stressors and that induce an alteration in an animal's homeostatic or adaptive state (NRC, in press)

5.1.4

Distress: An inferred aversive state based on a variety of behavioral, physiologic, and psychologic indices of an animal's inability to adapt to the effect of stressors and the attendant stress (NRC, in press)

5.1.5

Pain

 

5.1.5.1

The sensation (perception) resulting from nerve impulses reaching the cerebral cortex via specific neural pathways (nociceptive pathways) (AVMA, 1986)

 

 

• The term nociceptive is derived from Latin words meaning ''hurtful stimulus"

 

 

• Noxious stimuli damage or destroy tissue or have the potential to do so

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Noxious stimuli initiate nerve impulses by acting on a specific set of receptors called nociceptors

 

 

• Nociceptors respond to excessive mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli

 

5.1.5.2

An unpleasant sensory or emotional experience associated with potential or actual tissue damage (Mersky, 1986)

5.2 Categories of Pain (AVMA, 1986)

5.2.1

Sensory-Discriminative: Provides sensory information about the intensity, duration, and location of a stimulus causing pain

5.2.2

Motivational-Affective: Provides affective information about the severity and quality of a stimulus causing pain

5.3 Pain Perception

5.3.1

Range: From pain detection threshold through upper limit of pain tolerance

 

5.3.1.1

Pain detection threshold: That point at which pain is first perceived during noxious stimulation

 

 

• Minimal pain, not associated with stress or distress (Wolff, 1978)

 

 

• Same in animals and in humans (Vierck, 1976; Zimmerman, 1984; Kitchell, 1987)

 

5.3.1.2

Pain tolerance

 

 

• Limit of tolerance to noxious stimuli

 

 

• Varies between individual and between species

5.3.2

Duration

 

5.3.2.1

Acute pain

 

 

• Short duration

 

 

• Occurs after injury or early in illness

 

 

• Plays protective role, warning the body about injury

 

5.3.2.2

Chronic pain

 

 

• Longer duration than acute pain

 

 

• Does not serve protective role

5.3.3

Pain is perceived only if the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures are functional; it is not perceived if these structures are rendered nonfunctional (e.g., by hypoxia, drugs, electrical shock, concussion, surgical intervention)

5.3.4

Pain can be perceived even though noxious stimuli do not elicit body movements (e.g., if a muscle-paralyzing drug such as succinylcholine is administered)

5.4 Assessment of Pain (AVMA, 1986)

5.4.1

Must be based primarily on observations of abnormal behavioral and physiologic responses that demonstrate anxiety and fear (e.g., distress vocalization, struggling, stumbling, escape activity, defensive aggression or freezing, muscular tremors, pupillary dilation, salivation, reflex urination and defecation, panting and sweating, tachycardia)

5.4.2

Stimuli that evoke a pain response in a conscious animal might elicit only reflex responses in an unconscious animal; therefore, nonpurposeful movements are not reliable indicators of pain perception

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

5.5 Stress (NRC, in press)

5.5.1

Stress as an adaptive process

 

5.5.1.1

Stress is not always abnormal or harmful to well-being

 

 

• May result from environmental alterations that are not harmful and may initiate responses leading to beneficial effects

 

 

• Stressors are common in the natural environment; a captive animal that has not experienced some stress is quite different behaviorally and physiologically from the typical members of its species

 

5.5.1.2

Response to short-term stress

 

 

• Animal attempts to adapt behaviorally and/or physiologically

 

 

• Usually no long-term effects

 

 

• Introduction of novel stimuli (e.g., exposure to new handling techniques) into the laboratory animal's environment may teach it to adapt more easily to changes that may occasionally occur

 

5.5.1.3

Acute stress response

 

 

• Generally of shorter duration than maladaptive stress (distress) responses

 

 

• Causes atypical but not maladaptive behavior under the circumstances (e.g., chairing an unadapted nonhuman primate)

 

 

• Important from perspective of both animals and research

5.5.2

Stress as a maladaptive process

 

5.5.2.1

Stress becomes harmful when an animal cannot adapt to a stressor

 

5.5.2.2

Stress leading to maladaptive behavior and distress

 

 

• Unrelieved pain (e.g., injury, surgery, experimental)

 

 

• Anxiety and fear

 

 

• Social deprivation

 

 

• Boredom

 

 

• Inappropriate housing or husbandry practices

 

 

• Experimental design

5.6 Distress (NRC, in press)

5.6.1

The relationship between the presence of stress and the process by which an animal proceeds from a state of comfort or discomfort to one of distress poses the same questions that arise whenever one attempts to relate physiologic processes to subjective experience

5.6.2

Response to prolonged stress

 

5.6.2.1

Maladaptive behaviors: Abnormal feeding and postprandial grooming, inappropriate interaction with cohorts or handlers (e.g., aggression, passivity, withdrawal), inefficient reproduction, stereotypic behavior(?)

 

 

• May become permanent part of animal's behavioral repertoire

 

 

• Become more maladaptive as the state of distress becomes more extreme or excessive

 

5.6.2.2

Pathologic conditions (e.g., gastric and intestinal lesions, hypertension, immunosuppression)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

5.7 Ethical Obligations

5.7.1

Principle of nonmaleficence: Cause no unnecessary pain or distress

5.7.2

Principle of beneficence: Be kind whenever possible

5.7.3

Procedures selected in designing a study should be based on predictibility of outcome

5.7.4

To predict outcome, use as comparisons example with documented characteristics related to the presence or absence of pain and/or distress (Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research, 1988)

5.8 Legal Obligations (Overseen by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

5.8.1

Scientific procedures must avoid or minimize discomfort, distress, and pain (9 CFR 2.31), consistent with sound research design (PHS, 1986)

5.8.2

Principal investigators must have considered alternatives to procedures that might cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress (9 CFR 2.31)

5.8.3

Appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia must be used for procedures that can cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress to the animals, unless withholding such agents is justified for scientific reasons and those reasons are stated in writing (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

5.8.4

Potentially painful and distressful procedures must be planned in consultation with the attending veterinarian (9 CFR 2.31)

5.8.5

Neuromuscular blocking agents (paralytics) must not be used without anesthesia when performing painful or distressful procedures (9 CFR 2.31, NRC, 1985; PHS, 1986)

5.8.6

Euthanasia must be performed at the end of a procedure or, if possible, during a procedure in which animals experience severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

5.9 Adequate Veterinary Care

5.9.1

Veterinary staff must be able to recognize and advise scientific staff on signs of pain or distress in animals

5.9.2

Veterinary staff must be familiar with and advise scientific staff on appropriate interventions for relief of pain or distress

 

5.9.2.1

Pharmacologic interventions (pain and pain-induced distress)

 

 

• Chemical interventions vary significantly between species, by dose, and by route of administration

 

 

• Analgesics temporarily abolish awareness of pain without loss of consciousness, although their mechanism of action in animals is not yet clearly defined

 

 

• Tranquilizers and sedatives can be used to prevent or diminish distress

 

 

• Anesthetics block perception of pain

 

 

• Neurosurgical lesions block perception of pain

 

5.9.2.2

Nonpharmacologic interventions (distress not induced by pain)

 

 

• Rearrangements in social groupings may alleviate stressful conditions

 

 

• Addition of bedding material might increase physical comfort

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Gentle handling might decrease distress

 

 

• Adaptation to experimental situation before start of study might decrease stress

REFERENCES

Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research. 1988. Appendix I: Types of experiments. Pp. Ia-Ic in New York Academy of Sciences Interdisciplinary Principles and Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Panel on Euthanasia. 1986. 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:252–268.


Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


Kitchell, R. L. 1987. Problems in defining pain and peripheral mechanisms of pain J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 191:1195–1199.


Mersky, H. 1979. Pain terms: A list with definitions and notes on usage. Pain 6:249–250.


NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.

NRC (National Research Council). In press. Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.


Vierck, C. J. 1976. Extrapolations from the pain research literature to problems of adequate veterinary care. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168:510–513.


Wolff, B. B. 1978. Behavioural measurement of human pain. Pp. 129–168 in The Psychology of Pain, R. A. Sternbach, ed. New York: Raven Press.


Zimmerman, M. 1984. Neurobiological concepts of pain, its assessment and therapy. Pp. 15–35 in Pain Measurement in Man: Neurophysiological Correlates of Pain, B. Bromm, ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

6
Anesthetics, Tranquilizers, Analgescis, and Neuromuscular Blocking Agents

The report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals entitled Recognition and Alleviation of Pain and Distress in Laboratory Animals, which is in press, will provide details on drug actions, drug doses, and species variability.

6.1 General Anesthetics (Lumb and Jones, 1984)

6.1.1

Definition: Substances that produce, in a controllable manner, a drug-induced absence of perception of all sensation (Marshall and Longnecker, 1990)

6.1.2

Functional Use: To produce unconsciousness, analgesia, and muscle relaxation sufficient to perform procedures painlessly

6.1.3

Classification

 

6.1.3.1

Injectable: Agents such as the barbiturates (e.g., sodium pentobarbital)

 

 

• Effects of these agents cannot be reversed quickly

 

 

• Drug must be metabolized, excreted, or counteracted by another drug to terminate anesthetic action

 

6.1.3.2

Inhalant: Volatile agents (e.g., methoxyflurane, halothane)

 

 

• Effects of these agents can be reversed quickly

 

 

• Animal's expiration eliminates agent when administration is discontinued

 

6.1.3.3

Dissociative: Agents that depress the central nervous system (CNS) and produce a state of catalepsy (e.g., ketamine, phencyclidine)

 

 

• Have strong analgesic properties in some species

 

 

• When used alone, procedures are usually limited to minor surgery

 

 

• Most effective when combined with tranquilizers and sedatives (e.g., xylazine, acetylpromazine maleate, diazepam)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Produce seizures and clonic tonic muscle contractions in some species

6.1.4

Pretreatment of patient

 

6.1.4.1

Anticholinergics such as atropine reduce salivation and bradycardia

 

 

• Tranquilizers such as acetylpromazine calm the animal and facilitate restraint

 

6.1.4.3

Sedatives such as xylazine depress the CNS

6.1.5

Dosage principles for general anesthesia

 

6.1.5.1

Evaluate the physical condition of the animal to ensure the absence of any disease condition that might compromise the animal's health during anesthesia

 

6.1.5.2

Administer to effect

 

6.1.5.3

Calculate dose by body weight, taking animal's age into account

 

6.1.5.4

Allow for variations in response to agent between species and between individuals of the same species because of differences that can occur in absorption and biotransformation

 

6.1.5.5

Pretreat with tranquilizers or sedatives, when appropriate, to decrease the amount of anesthetic needed

6.1.6

General Considerations

 

6.1.6.1

When possible, a new anesthetic regimen should be tested in a limited number of animals before depending on it for surgical or other painful procedures in a research protocol

 

6.1.6.2

The health of animal should be considered in selecting an anesthetic

 

6.1.6.3

The level of CNS depression should be the minimum that is necessary to perform the procedure, compatible with the animal's welfare

 

6.1.6.4

The effect of anesthesia on the validity of experimental results and the interaction of anesthesia with other drugs in the experimental protocol must be considered

 

6.1.6.5

Basic equipment to ensure adequate ventilation should be available

 

6.1.6.6

Body heat must be conserved, especially in small and young animals

 

6.1.6.7

Whenever possible, a warm, balanced electrolyte solution should be administered by intravenous drip throughout the surgical procedure to help maintain normal hemodynamics

 

6.1.6.8

The anesthetist is responsible for the animal's welfare until the animal has normal cardiopulmonary function and is able to maintain itself in sternal recumbency

 

6.1.6.9

Consideration must be given to the safety of personnel in the area where anesthetic gases will be administered and, if necessary, a gas-scavenging system must be provided

6.1.7

Stage of general anesthesia

 

6.1.7.1

Stage I

 

 

• Stage of analgesia or voluntary movement

 

 

• Duration: From onset of administration to loss of consciousness

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

6.1.7.2

Stage II

 

 

• Stage of delirium or involuntary movement

 

 

• Duration: From loss of consciousness to onset of regular pattern of breathing

 

6.1.7.3

Stage III

 

 

• Stage of surgical anesthesia

 

 

• Characterized by unconsciousness; a progressive depression of cardio-pulmonary function; a progressive depression of reflexes, including vomiting and swallowing reflexes; and muscular relaxation

 

 

• Divided into planes 1 through 4, where plane 1 is light, planes 2 and 3 are medium, and plane 4 is deep anesthesia

 

6.1.7.4

Stage IV

 

 

• Characterized by extreme CNS depression

 

 

• Death ensues quickly unless resuscitative steps are taken

6.1.8

Evaluation of effects

 

6.1.8.1

Test reflexes (e.g., pedal and palpebral reflexes) and the tone of the jaw and anal sphincter muscles (reflexes are absent and muscle tone is relaxed during anesthesia)

 

6.1.8.2

Monitor depth and rate of respiration (increase in depth and decrease in rate signify anesthesia)

 

6.1.8.3

Monitor heart rate (slowing indicates anesthesia an increase in rate during the procedure often indicates that the depth of anesthesia is not adequate and the animal is feeling pain)

 

6.1.8.4

Monitor body temperature and maintain at normal levels (temperature falls in anesthesia, especially in small species)

6.1.9

Indications of anesthetic overdose

 

6.1.9.1

Pulse is weak to imperceptible

 

6.1.9.2

Blood pressure is reduced to shock level

 

6.1.9.3

Cardiac dysrhythmias may occur

 

6.1.9.4

Capillary refill time progressively slows to 3 or more seconds

 

6.1.9.5

Respiration is slow and irregular, becomes diaphragmatic, or may cease

 

6.1.9.6

Mucous membrane and skin colors may be pale to cyanotic

 

6.1.9.7

Cardiovascular, CNS, musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, and ocular reflexes are greatly diminished or cease

 

6.1.10

Intervention for anesthetic overdose

 

6.1.10.1

Mechanically ventilate with oxygen

 

6.1.10.2

Administer isotonic fluids intravenously or intraperitoneally

 

6.1.10.3

Warm animal to increase body temperature

 

6.1.10.4

Administer antidote, if one exists

6.2 Tranquilizers and Sedatives (Gleed, 1987)

6.2.1

Definition

 

6.2.1.1

Substances that reduce the anxiety and stress that an animal may experience when it is handled

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

6.2.1.2

Distinction between tranquilizers and sedatives is mainly semantic, except that increased doses of tranquilizers tend to produce side effects without loss of consciousness, whereas increased doses of sedatives produce a profound CNS depression resembling anesthesia

6.2.2

Functional uses

 

6.2.2.1

Chemical restraint

 

6.2.2.2

Preanesthetic medication to reduce amount of anesthetic required

6.2.3

Functional characteristics

 

6.2.3.1

Except for the thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine, detomidine), there is no significant analgesic activity

 

6.2.3.2

Increased stimulation (e.g., noise) usually reverses calming effects

 

6.2.3.3

When used as preanesthetics:

 

 

• Ample time should be allowed to achieve the maximum effect before inducing anesthesia

 

 

• Recovery from general anesthesia is generally smoother

 

6.2.3.4

All share the characteristics listed above, but each drug or group of drugs has its own pharmacologic properties and contraindications

6.2.4

Classifications of tranquilizers (ataratics or neuroleptics)

 

6.2.4.1

Phenothiazines (e.g., acetylpromazine)

 

6.2.4.2

Butyrophenones (e.g., azaperone, droperidol)

 

6.2.4.3

Benzodiazepines in lower doses (e.g., diazepam, zolazepam)

6.2.5

Classifications of sedatives (hypnotics)

 

6.2.5.1

Barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital)

 

6.2.5.2

Benzodiazepines in higher doses (e.g., diazepam, zolazepam)

 

6.2.5.3

Chloral derivatives (e.g., chloral hydrate)

 

6.2.5.4

Thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine)

6.2.6

Tranquilizer and sedative effects

 

6.2.6.1

Phenothiazines

 

 

• Make animals more tractable

 

 

• Cause hypotension

 

 

• Minimally reduce respiratory rate

 

6.2.6.2

Butyrophenones

 

 

• Make animals indifferent to their surroundings

 

 

• Decrease motor activity

 

 

• Cause hypotension

 

 

• Slightly increase respiratory rate

 

6.2.6.3

Benzodiazepines

 

 

• Cause CNS depression

 

 

• Have mild cardiovascular depressant effects at low doses

 

 

• have little effect on respiration

 

6.2.6.4

Thiazine derivatives (e.g., xylazine)

 

 

• Produce dose-related CNS depression

 

 

• Have little effect on respiration

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Cause bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, and increased central venous pressure

 

6.2.6.5

Barbituates (e.g., sodium pentobarbital)

 

 

• High doses produce anesthesia

 

 

• At lower doses, sodium pentobarbital can be used as a sedative and premedicant before anesthesia, but a suboptimal (low dose) may cause involuntary excitement in some species

 

6.2.6.6

Chloral derivatives (e.g., chloral hydrate)

 

 

• Is a reliable sedative hypnotic

 

 

• Has poor analgesic properties, even at anesthetic doses

6.2.7

Indications for use and monitoring of effects

6.2.8

Reversal of tranquilizing and sedative effects

 

6.2.8.1

No agents available for most tranquilizers and sedatives

 

6.2.8.2

Yohimbine can be used to reverse xylazine

6.3 Analgesics

6.3.1

Definition: Substances that temporarily alleviate pain without causing loss of consciousness

6.3.2

Functional Uses

 

6.3.2.1

Pain control without the use of anesthetics

 

6.3.2.2

Preanesthetic to reduce amount of anesthetic required

 

6.3.2.3

Postoperative pain relief

6.3.3

Classifications

 

6.3.3.1

Opioids: Term used to designate all endogenous and exogenous substances that bind to a subset of opioid receptors and produce analgesia and mild sedation (e.g., morphine, meperidine, oxymorphone, pentazocine)

 

6.3.3.2

Opiates: Term no longer used

 

6.3.3.3

Nonopioids: Drugs such as the alpha-2 agonists that bind at the adrenoceptor sites (e.g., xylazine, detomidine)

6.3.4

Opioids (Short, 1987a)

 

6.3.4.1

Actions (may vary significantly between species)

 

 

• Major effects on the CNS

 

 

• Effects include analgesia, sedation, respiratory depression, decreased gastrointestinal motility, nausea, vomiting, and alterations of endocrine and autonomic nervous system functions

 

 

• Act as agonists, interacting with binding sites or receptors in the brain and other tissues

 

 

• Actions of some compounds have not been determined for some laboratory animals

 

 

• Dose may vary significantly between species

 

6.3.4.2

Antagonists: Drugs (e.g., naloxone) that can prevent or promptly reverse some or all of the effects of opioids by competing with them for the same receptor sites

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

6.3.5

Neuroleptanalgesics: Drugs that produce a state of CNS depression and analgesia without the use of barbiturates or volatile anesthetic agents (Short, 1987b)

 

6.3.5.1

Functional use

 

 

• Limited applications for minor diagnostic and surgical procedures that require minimal analgesia and immobilization (e.g., radiography, minor skin suturing, placement of peripheral venous catheters)

 

 

• Often require supplementation with additional anesthetics to increase analgesia and muscle relaxation

 

6.3.5.2

Functional characteristics

 

 

• Combination of a narcotic (fentanyl) and a tranquilizer (droperidol) such as Innovar-Vet, which produces a state of analgesia and deep sedation without total unconsciousness

 

 

• States of deep sedation and analgesia adequate for surgical intervention have been produced in dogs, rats, and nonhuman primates

 

 

• A peculiar characteristic of this state in the dog and rat, but not in the nonhuman primate, is the capacity to respond to auditory stimuli (e.g., dropping an object, crumpling paper)

 

 

• Pedal reflex is absent

 

 

• Maximum analgesia persists for 30–40 minutes, after which there may be a reaction to cutaneous stimulation even though generalized sedation and some analgesia are still evident

6.3.6

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)

 

6.3.6.1

Drugs such as phenylbutazone, acetaminophen, and aspirin can be useful in special cases

 

6.3.6.2

Aspirin

 

 

• Most effective for relief of muscular pain

 

 

• Minimal effect for relief of visceral pain

6.4 Neuromuscular Blocking Agents (Paralytics or Immobilizing Agents)

6.4.1

Definition: Drugs that reduce muscle tone without the loss of consciousness by acting on the neuromuscular junction (e.g., pancuronium) or on spinal synapses (e.g., mephenesin, guaifenesin)

6.4.2

Functional Use: Adjuvant in surgical anesthesia to increase muscle relaxation for procedures such as bone fracture repair in heavily muscled animals

6.4.3

Effects

 

6.4.3.1

Spinal polysynaptic reflexes are depressed preferentially over monosynaptic reflexes

 

6.4.3.2

Muscle paralysis occurs without loss of consciousness or analgesia; these drugs must never be used without general anesthesia (9 CFR 2.31; NRC, 1985; PHS, 1986)

6.4.4

Classification

 

6.4.4.1

Depolarizing agents such as decamethonium and succinylcholine

 

6.4.4.2

Nondepolarizing agents such as tubocurarine USP, gallamine, and pancuronium

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

6.5 Factors Modifying the Effects of Tranquilizers, Analgesics, and Neuromuscular Blocking Agents

6.5.1

Species variation

6.5.2

Age of animals: Very young and old animals may require adjustments in dose

6.5.3

Health status

 

6.5.3.1

Sick animals may respond differently from healthy animals

 

6.5.3.2

Pregnant animals may respond differently from nonpregnant animals

6.5.4

Route of drug administration

6.5.5

Depth of anesthesia modifies effects of neuromuscular blocking agents

6.5.6

Others

6.6 Safety Precautions

6.6.1

There must be secure storage for drugs with the potential for human abuse

6.6.2

Drugs under the control of the Drug Enforcement Agency must be stored in a locked cabinet in a secure area

6.7 Recordkeeping Requirements

6.7.1

A written record is required when barbiturates and other drugs under the control of the Drug Enforcement Agency are used

6.7.2

An inventory list of anesthetics, analgesics, tranquilizers, sedatives, and other drugs should be kept

6.7.3

Individual clinical records should be annotated to reflect the use of the agents described above, showing the date, dose, and any abnormal reactions that occurred

6.8 Functions of the Attending Veterinarian in Pain Management

6.8.1

Provides professional advice on the type of agents that are appropriate for use and establishes dose ranges for each

6.8.2

Provides or counsels investigators on appropriate physical facilities and equipment to properly administer general anesthetics

6.8.3

Recommends ways to monitor the physical condition of an animal while it is under treatment

6.8.4

Provides the professional expertise to respond appropriately to medical emergencies if they occur

6.8.5

Monitors procedures to assess degree of pain relief required

REFERENCES

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


Gleed, R. D. 1987. Tranquilizers and sedatives. Pp. 16–27 in Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C. E. Short, ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.


Lumb, W. V., and E. W. Jones. 1984. Veterinary Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 693 pp.


NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

Marshall, B. E., and D. E. Longnecker. 1990. General anesthetics. Pp. 285–310 in The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed., A. G. Gilman, T. W. Rall, A. S. Nies, and T. Taylor, eds. New York: Pergamon Press.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.


Short, C. E. 1987a. Pain, analgesics, and related medications. Pp. 28–46 in Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C. E. Short, ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Short, C. E. 1987b. Neuroleptanalgesia and alpha-adrenergic receptor analgesia. Pp. 47–57 in Principles and Practices of Veterinary Anesthesia, C. E. Short, ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

7
Survival Surgery and Postsurgical Care

7.1 Definitions

7.1.1

Aseptic technique: Surgical technique conducted under conditions that prevent exposure of the patient to pathogenic organisms, including wearing of sterile surgical gloves, gowns, caps, and face masks; use of sterile instruments; and aseptic preparation of the surgical field (NRC, 1985, p. 37)

7.1.2

Survival surgery: Surgery performed on a live animal under general anesthesia, from which the animal is expected to recover

7.1.3

Nonsurvival surgery: The animal is killed at the end of the surgical procedure before recovering from anesthesia

7.1.4

Major operative procedure (9 CFR 2.31) or major survival surgery (NRC, 1985, p. 37): Surgical intervention that penetrates a body cavity or could potentially produce a permanent handicap in an animal that is expected to recover

7.1.5

Minor surgical procedure: Surgical procedure restricted to the management of minor problems and injuries (e.g., wound suturing, peripheral vessel cannulation)

7.2 Legal Requirements (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

7.2.1

Surgery must be performed or directly supervised by trained, experienced personnel

7.2.2

Procedures that will cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress must be performed with appropriate sedatives, analgesics, or anesthetics, unless withholding such agents is justified for scientific reasons and that justification is provided to the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) in writing by the principal investigator

7.2.3

Pre- and postsurgical care must be provided in accordance with established veterinary medical and nursing practices

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

7.2.4

Survival surgery

 

7.2.4.1

AWRs require that aseptic surgical techniques be used on all regulated animals (9 CFR 2.31)

 

7.2.4.2

PHS policy requires compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, which recommends that survival surgery on rodents be conducted using sterile instruments, surgical gloves, and aseptic procedure (NRC, 1985; PHS, 1986)

 

7.2.4.3

Major surgical procedures on nonrodents must be conducted only in facilities that are intended for that purpose and are maintained under aseptic conditions (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

 

7.2.4.4

Nonmajor operative procedures, operative procedures conducted at field sites, and all surgical procedures on rodents do not require a dedicated facility but must be performed using aseptic procedures (9 CFR 2.31)

7.2.5

Multiple major surgical procedures on one animal may not be performed unless one of the following conditions is met:

 

7.2.5.1

The procedures are justified for scientific reasons and have been approved by the IACUC; the justification must be stated in writing by the principal investigator

 

7.2.5.2

The procedures are necessary to protect the health or well-being of the animals, as determined by the attending veterinarian

 

7.2.5.3

There are special circumstances that have been approved by the administrator of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, on an individual basis

7.3 Preparation for Surgery

7.3.1

Animal

 

7.3.1.1

Hair should be clipped from the surgical site; special care is necessary when electric clippers are used, because the skin of most laboratory animals is very thin and easily abraded by clipper blades

 

7.3.1.2

The operative site should be thoroughly cleaned with a skin disinfectant to remove surface bacteria

 

7.3.1.3

Tape or lightweight strings should be used to secure an animal's limbs and hold the animal in position on the operative table or board

 

7.3.1.4

The animal should be positioned with the head and neck fully extended to ensure a patent airway, and an endotrachial tube should be inserted when possible

 

7.3.1.5

Surgical drapes should be used to cover the animal's body to prevent contamination of the operative site; if a drape is used in surgery on rodents and rabbits, the drape must be small enough to permit visualization of the animal's respiratory movements and peripheral perfusion to avoid anesthetic accidents

7.3.2

Surgeon

 

7.3.2.1

A cap and face mask should be donned first

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

7.3.2.2

Hands and arms are scrubbed thoroughly with germicidal soap prior to donning sterile gloves and, when appropriate, a surgical gown

7.3.3

Surgical instruments

 

7.3.3.1

All instruments must be wrapped in packs and sterilized prior to surgery

 

7.3.3.2

The sterilization date should be written on the outside of each pack when it is prepared

 

7.3.3.3

Unused, sterilized instruments in packs should be resterilized after a period of time appropriate to the type and thickness of the material in which the instruments are packed and the method of sterilization

7.4 Anesthesia (see section 6.1)

7.5 Surgical Complications

7.5.1

Hypothermia: Abnormally low body temperature caused by inadvertent loss of body heat or purposeful chilling of the animal (Lumb and Jones, 1984)

 

7.5.1.1

Effects

 

 

• Can cause a fall in blood pressure due to decreased cardiac output; however, peripheral resistance increases

 

 

• Occasionally causes a severe drop in blood pressure due to depression of the sinoatrial node and bundle of His

 

 

• Can cause ventricular fibrillation, most frequently when the temperature of the heart muscle is below 28°C

 

 

• In dogs, a fall in in body temperature to between 23°C and 15°C can cause a cardiac crisis characterized by cessation of sinus rhythm, intense bradycardia, ventricular extrasystoles, and ventricular fibrillation or standstill

 

 

• Prolongs clotting time

 

7.5.1.2

Occurrence

 

 

• Sooner in small rodents and rabbits than in larger animals

 

 

— Small animals have a greater ratio of body surface to body mass than do larger animals

 

 

— Small animals have efficient heat-dissipation surfaces in the ears (rabbits) or in the ears, feet, and tail (rodents)

 

 

• When abdominal or thoracic contents are exposed for prolonged periods

 

7.5.1.3

Prevention—Retaining body heat by using the following:

 

 

• Surgical drapes and a pad of insulation placed between the animal's body and the surgery table

 

 

• Circulating hot water pads; safer than electric pads because they are less likely to cause tissue damage from localized overheating

 

 

• Small, readily sanitizable plastic boards to cover steel table surfaces

 

 

• Warm, wet lap sponges to cover exposed organs

7.5.2

Dehydration

 

7.5.2.1

Can occur when abdominal or thoracic contents are exposed for prolonged periods; therefore, these organs should be covered with warm, wet lap sheets or sponges throughout the surgical process

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

7.5.2.2

Can be controlled by administering isotonic electrolyte solutions intravenously to maintain body fluid balance

7.5.3

Hemorrhage

 

7.5.3.1

Causes

 

 

• Improper use of or inadequate hemostatic techniques during surgery (e.g., cautery of small blood vessels or ligatures applied to larger vessels)

 

 

• Intercurrent disease

 

 

• Drugs that prolong bleeding time

 

7.5.3.2

Prevention: Use of proper surgical techniques

 

7.5.3.3

Treatment

 

 

• Locate source of bleeding and properly seal open end of vessel(s)

 

 

• If adequate, application of pressure

 

 

• Agents that enhance clotting (e.g., vitamin K) may be useful in some cases

 

 

• Intravenous fluid replacement or blood transfusion may be indicated when a large amount of blood has been lost

7.5.4

Anesthetic overdose

 

7.5.4.1

Cause: Improper dose calculations or administration of drug

 

7.5.4.2

Prevention

 

 

• Knowledge of drugs and animals used

 

 

• Careful monitoring during induction phase

 

7.5.4.3

Treatment (See 6.1.10)

7.6 Incisions

7.6.1

Closure

 

7.6.1.1

To facilitate wound healing, it is important to match both needle size and suture material type and size to the procedure

 

7.6.1.2

Multiple layers of sutures placed in an interrupted pattern are preferred to a continuous pattern to minimize the risk of dehiscense

 

7.6.1.3

A subcuticular suture pattern is advantageous for skin closure in animals that are inclined to chew or otherwise remove stitches

 

7.6.1.4

Knots used to join the ends of suture material must be tied correctly and securely to prevent spontaneous loosening during the healing process

 

7.6.1.5

Metal clips can be used in lieu of sutures to close skin incisions in thin-skinned animals

7.6.2

Dehiscense

 

7.6.2.1

Causes

 

 

• Structures improperly placed

 

 

• Knots improperly tied

 

 

• Healing compromised by bacterial infection

 

7.6.2.2

Prevention: Use of good surgical techniques

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

7.6.2.3

Treatment

 

 

• Thorough cleaning of wound, trimming away of unhealthy tissue, and reapplication of sutures

 

 

• Use of parenteral antibiotics if infection is present

7.7 Postsurgical Care

7.7.1

Trained personnel should observe the animal from the time surgery is completed to the time that the animal has recovered from anesthesia sufficiently to maintain itself in sternal recumbancy

7.7.2

The animal should be kept warm, quiet, and clean throughout the immediate postoperative period to facilitate the metabolism of anesthetic and to maximize healing of the incision

7.7.3

Supplemental fluids, analgesics, and other drugs should be scheduled in the protocol and administered as needed

7.7.4

Special diets, housing, and environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity) should be considered to maximize the rate of healing

7.7.5

If large volumes of balanced electrolytes or other fluids are administered subcutaneously, the injections should be made at multiple sites to prevent tissue damage

7.7.6

Antibiotics should be used only when needed to treat postoperative infections; they must be carefully selected to avoid specific species intolerances

7.7.7

Remove sutures at the appropriate time

7.7.8

Notes on daily monitoring of the animal's progress, administration of medicaments, and management of the surgical incision up to the time of suture removal should be recorded on the clinical record

7.7.9

The development of the postoperative care protocol should be done in consultation with and under the supervision of the attending veterinarian

7.7.10

A kit containing a variety of drugs and equipment that may be needed in a medical emergency should be available in the immediate postoperative care area

7.8 Equipment: Type needed to properly support surgical procedures is dependent on a number of variables, including the species of animal used, the nature of the procedure, and the anesthetic agent used

7.8.1

Circulating water heating pads and heatlamps are helpful for preventing hypothermia

7.8.2

Nebulized liquids are helpful in relieving pulmonary congestion

7.8.3

Vacuum (suction) equipment is useful for removing accumulations of mucus from the respiratory tract and fluid from body cavities

7.8.4

Oxygen administration facilitates the return of normal pulmonary function and increases the rate of tissue healing

7.8.5

A mechanical respirator (ventilator) should be available to support respiration when the animal's system is compromised, and the animal is unable to breathe normally

7.8.6

A cardiac monitor is essential for evaluating heart rate and pattern

7.8.7

An electronic thermometer is helpful for monitoring body temperature

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

7.8.8

A mechanical gas anesthesia machine or an airtight chamber is essential for the administration of volatile anesthetics, and some form of gas-scavenging system should be provided to remove excess gas from the room

7.8.9

An electrocautery unit is useful for managing hemostasis during surgery

7.8.10

An esophageal stethoscope is useful for monitoring heart beat during surgery

7.9 Recordkeeping

7.9.1

A permanent record should be established for each animal undergoing surgery

7.9.2

The record should be complete, current, and readily accessible

7.9.3

A brief description of the surgical procedure should be recorded and should reflect what was approved by the IACUC

7.9.4

Any unexpected or abnormal reaction to anesthetics or other drugs should be recorded

7.9.5

Any information that might be of value or assistance for maintaining the animal after surgery should be recorded

7.9.6

All postsurgical care provided should be documented

REFERENCES

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1-3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


Lumb, W. V., and E. W. Jones. 1984. Veterinary Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. 693 pp.


NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 83 pp.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

8
Euthanasia

8.1 Definition

8.1.1

A method of killing an animal that ensures minimal physical and psychological suffering (AVMA, 1986)

8.1.2

A process of killing that renders the animal unconscious (and thus insensitive to pain) as rapidly as possible, without fear and anxiety (CCAC, 1980)

8.2 Legal Requirements

8.2.1

AWRs (9 CFR 1.1, 2.31)

 

8.2.1.1

Method must produce rapid unconsciousness and subsequent death without evidence of pain or distress; or

 

8.2.1.2

Method must utilize anesthesia produced by an agent that causes painless loss of consciousness and subsequent death

8.2.2

PHS policy (PHS, 1986)

 

8.2.2.1

Method must be consistent with the recommendations of the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA, 1986, or succeeding revised editions); or

 

8.2.2.2

If method deviates from AVMA recommendations, the deviation must be justified scientifically and approved by the institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC)

8.2.3

Animals that would otherwise experience severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved will be painlessly killed at the end of the procedure, or if appropriate, during the procedure (9 CFR 2.31; PHS, 1986)

8.2.4

Attending veterinarians are responsible for providing guidance to principal investigators and other personnel (9 CFR 2.31)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

8.2.5

Institutions must ensure that personnel are appropriately trained and qualified in the methods of euthanasia that will be used (9 CFR 2.31)

8.3 Ethical and Humane Considerations

8.3.1

Euthanasia should be performed quickly and efficiently in a nonpublic area but not in rooms in which animals are housed

8.3.2

Criteria should be developed for deciding when the level of pain and distress is such that euthanasia is warranted, and the person responsible for making that decision should be identified in the experimental protocol (Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research, 1988; Everitt and Griffin, 1988)

 

8.3.2.1

Moribund animals: An acceptable endpoint should be determined, consistent with sound research design, so that suffering is not prolonged unnecessarily

 

8.3.2.2

Animals with solid tumors should be killed when

 

 

• The size of the tumor interferes with normal behavior such as eating, drinking, and freedom of movement

 

 

• The tumor ulcerates or develops necrotic areas

 

 

• Clinical signs such as weight loss, lethargy, and inappetence appear (for tumors that are not palpable)

8.3.3

Euthanasia-associated pain and distress should be prevented or minimized in nervous or intractable animals by skillful handling or by the administration of tranquilizers, sedatives, or analgesic drugs

8.3.4

A person performing euthanasia should demonstrate professionalism and sensitivity for the value of animal life

8.3.5

Death should be confirmed by checking for the absence of a heartbeat; the absence of respiration does not always indicate death

8.4 Human Considerations

8.4.1

Euthanasia is often a stressor to the person performing the procedure

 

8.4.1.1

To many people, the taking of an animal's life is an awesome task

 

8.4.1.2

The degree of distress experienced by those people observing or performing euthanasia or death in any form is dependent on their backgrounds and on their personal philosophies and ethical concerns about using animals in research (Arluke, 1988)

 

8.4.1.3

Because of the kinship between people and higher animals, however distant, the unpleasant reaction people have to human death is often transferred to the death of animals

 

8.4.1.4

The stress of performing euthanasia is magnified when there are strong emotional bonds between personnel and individual animals or when large numbers of animals are killed on a regular basis

 

8.4.1.5

The stress experienced by people who regularly perform euthanasia may cause a strong sense of work dissatisfaction or alienation, which might be expressed by absenteeism, belligerence, or careless and callous handling of animals, along with a high turnover rate of personnel

8.4.2

Coping effectively with euthanasia-associated emotional stress

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

8.4.2.1

Supervisory awareness and sensitivity must be developed

 

8.4.2.2

Coping skills for employees should be developed through institutional and other programs in stress management and coping with death and dying

 

8.4.2.3

Personnel should be taught the facts about euthanasia

 

 

• The effects of various agents and methods are subjective and based on professional judgment, experience, and intuition

 

 

• Some of the reported disadvantages and controversy about certain practices are based on sentiment and aesthetic considerations rather than on sound scientific data

 

 

• Some physical methods may be aesthetically unpleasant but quite humane

 

 

• The choice of a method for euthanasia must be based primarily on humane concerns rather than on the sensitivities of the technician who performs or the people who observe the euthanasia

 

 

• Involuntary movements and vocalization can occur after an animal is unconscious and do not necessarily indicate that the animal is feeling pain

8.5 Criteria for Selection of Method of Euthanasia

8.5.1

Has a rapid, initial depressive action on the central nervous system so that the animal is quickly rendered unconscious and insensitive to pain

8.5.2

Is appropriate for the age, species, and health of the animal

8.5.3

Does not cause fear, anxiety, or panic in the animal being killed or in other animals in the room

8.5.4

Produces nonreversible effects

8.5.5

Is compatible with the requirements and purpose of a study and does not interfere with postmortem evaluation

8.5.6

Is safe for operators and observers to use, causes minimal emotional stress, and has little potential for abuse

8.5.7

Is available and economically feasible to use

8.6 Pharmacologic Methods

8.6.1

Inhalant agents

 

8.6.1.1

General

 

 

• Mode of action: Air in lungs is displaced by inhalant agent, and hypoxia of the brain or anesthesia and loss of consciousness follow

 

 

• Advantage: Particularly valuable in animals in which venipuncture is difficult (e.g., birds, rodents, cats, small dogs)

 

 

• Disadvantages

 

 

— Vapors can be irritating and induce excitement

 

 

— Exposure to vapors can be harmful to personnel and to other animals (a gas-scavenging system or fume hood is necessary)

 

 

— Newborn animals are accustomed to low oxygen and are more resistant to inhalant agents

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

8.6.1.2

Halothane, methoxyflurane, and nitrous oxide

 

 

• Mode of action: Central nervous system (CNS) depression

 

 

• Advantage: Nonflammable and nonexplosive under ordinary environmental conditions

 

 

• Disadvantage: Relatively expensive; impractical for routine use

 

8.6.1.3

Chloroform: Not recommended for use

 

 

• Mode of action: CNS depression

 

 

• Disadvantages:

 

 

— Is a potent hepatotoxin and a suspected carcinogen

 

 

— Can produce phosgene gas in the presence of a flame

 

8.6.1.4

Nitrogen

 

 

• Mode of action: Displaces oxygen and produces death by hypoxia

 

 

• Advantage: Constitutes a minimal hazard to humans because it mixes easily with room air

 

 

• Disadvantages

 

 

— Does not kill very young animals rapidly

 

 

— Manner of death may be aesthetically objectionable

 

8.6.1.5

Carbon monoxide (CO)

 

 

• Mode of action: Displaces oxygen on hemoglobin and produces death by hypoxia of the brain

 

 

• Advantages

 

 

— Induces rapid death without pain or discernible discomfort

 

 

— Acceptable for small animals, including dogs and cats, provided that precautions are taken as prescribed by the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA, 1986)

 

 

• Disadvantages

 

 

• If generated by gasoline combustion engines, CO must be filtered and cooled to prevent discomfort to the animals

 

 

— CO gas is hazardous to personnel

 

8.6.1.6

Carbon dioxide (CO2): Not approved for euthanasia in some states

 

 

• Mode of action: Hypoxia of the brain

 

 

• Advantages

 

 

— Well accepted and commonly used for euthanasia

 

 

— Discomfort of hypoxia is easily reduced by adding oxygen (30% O2, 70% CO2)

 

 

— Inexpensive, nonflammable, and nonexplosive

 

 

— Presents minimal hazard to personnel when used with properly designed equipment

 

 

— Causes no accumulation of chemical residues in tissues

 

 

— Does not distort cellular architecture

 

 

— Is effective for small laboratory animals (e.g., rodents; small or young dogs, cats, and swine; poultry)

 

 

• Disadvantages

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

— CO2 is heavier than air so incomplete filling of a euthanasia chamber may permit tall or climbing animals to avoid exposure to the gas

 

 

— Time for euthanasia may be substantially prolonged in newborn animals that are more resistant to hypoxia

 

8.6.1.7

Ether (diethyl ether)

 

 

• Mode of action: Hypoxia of the brain

 

 

• Advantage: Quick and efficient

 

 

• Disadvantages

 

 

— Flammable and explosive

 

 

— Special precautions are required not only while the agent is being used, but also in disposing of dead animals, whose fur and tissue retain gas that continues to vaporize and to constitute a hazard

8.6.2

Noninhalant pharmacologic agents

 

8.6.2.1

General

 

 

• Vary widely in chemical composition

 

 

• Death can be induced by multiple routes

 

 

— Intravenous administration is preferred because the effect is the most rapid and reliable

 

 

— Intrapulmonic injection should be avoided because of discomfort to the animals

 

 

— Oral, rectal, and intraperitoneal routes of administration are inadvisable because of prolonged onset of action, wide range in lethal doses, and potential irritation of tissues

 

 

— Intracardiac route is not recommended except in anesthetized or comatose animals

 

 

— Intrathecal route is not recommended except in anesthetized animals

 

 

• Excitable and vicious animals should be pretreated with an opioid analgesic, a tranquilizer, or another depressant

 

8.6.2.2

Barbiturates

 

 

• Mode of action: Central nervous system depression

 

 

• Advantage: Rapid euthanasia with minimal discomfort, depending on the dose of agent and route of injection (intravenously is preferred)

 

 

• Disadvantage: Must be used under supervision of personnel registered with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency

 

8.6.2.3

Chloral hydrate: Not recommended for use by itself

 

 

• Mode of action: CNS depression

 

 

• Disadvantage: Causes aesthetically objectionable animal movements; therefore, is not recommended for dogs, cats, or other small animals

8.6.3

Drugs that should never be used alone for euthanasia

 

8.6.3.1

Magnesium sulfate: Lacks analgesic or anesthetic effects

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

8.6.3.2

Potassium chloride: Lacks analgesic or anesthetic effects

 

8.6.3.3

Curariform drugs: Animals remain fully conscious until they suffocate

8.6.4

Drugs that should never be used for euthanasia

 

8.6.4.1

Strychnine: Excites the central nervous system; animal remains conscious until it dies from suffocation

 

8.6.4.2

Nicotine: Produces serious side effects before death

 

8.6.4.3

Hydrocyanic acid: Extremely hazardous to humans

8.7 Physical Methods

8.7.1

General characteristics

 

8.7.1.1

Cause immediate loss of consciousness through physical trauma to the brain or spinal cord

 

8.7.1.2

Users must be thoroughly trained, because improper performance of the procedures may cause the animal severe pain or distress

 

8.7.1.3

Have a high potential for being aesthetically displeasing to observers

 

8.7.1.4

Are most useful when pharmacologic methods would interfere with the purpose of the experiment

8.7.2

Penetrating captive bolt

 

8.7.2.1

Irreversibly damages the cerebral hemisphere and brainstem

 

8.7.2.2

Advantages

 

 

• Does not chemically contaminate tissues

 

 

• Causes immediate unconsciousness

 

 

• Humane method for use in large animals such as horses, ruminants, and swine when followed by exsanguination or pithing

 

8.7.2.3

Disadvantages

 

 

• Aesthetically displeasing

 

 

• Improper technique is highly likely to injure the animal and cause pain

 

8.7.2.4

Nonpenetrating captive bolt pistols are not recommended for use

8.7.3

Gunshot

 

8.7.3.1

Advantage: Death is instantaneous when the method is performed by a competent person

 

8.7.3.2

Disadvantages

 

 

• May be dangerous to personnel

 

 

• Aesthetically displeasing—should be used only in emergencies; under circumstances where other methods might not be readily usable, such as in field studies; or for farm animals in rural locations

8.7.4

Stunning

 

8.7.4.1

Humane only when the procedure is properly performed

 

8.7.4.2

Must be followed by some other means (e.g., exsanguination, decapitation, thoracotomy) to ensure death

 

8.7.4.3

Difficult to ensure consistency of effect in rabbits, rodents, and other small laboratory animals

 

8.7.4.4

Should be evaluated by the IACUC on a case-by-case basis

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

8.7.5

Cervical dislocation

 

8.7.5.1

When performed properly, it is a humane technique for euthanasia of poultry, mice, and immature rats and rabbits

 

8.7.5.2

Recommended that animals be sedated or lightly anesthetized beforehand, because they may not lose consciousness immediately (AVMA, 1986)

 

8.7.5.3

Requests to use this method should be reviewed by the IACUC on a case-by-case basis

8.7.6

Decapitation by guillotine

 

8.7.6.1

Used most often for euthanasia of rodents and small rabbits because they can be restrained without undue stress

 

8.7.6.2

Animals should be sedated or lightly anesthetized before guillotining or their severed heads should be immersed immediately in liquid nitrogen because it is not known whether there is immediate loss of consciousness

 

8.7.6.3

Advantage: Facilitates collection of brain tissue that is not contaminated with extraneous chemicals

8.7.7

Pithing

 

8.7.7.1

Effective for killing some poikilotherms (e.g., reptiles, amphibia)

 

8.7.7.2

Both brain and spinal cord must be pithed

 

8.7.7.3

Should be conducted only by trained personnel

8.7.8

Exsanguination: Animals should be sedated, stunned, or anesthetized because of the anxiety associated with extreme hypovolemia

8.7.9

Focused beam microwave irradiation

 

8.7.9.1

Humane for small laboratory rodents if done with a special microwave apparatus that focuses the energy on the brain to produce immediate unconsciousness

 

8.7.9.2

Microwave instrument must provide adequate kilowattage

 

8.7.9.3

Microwave ovens designed for domestic and institutional kitchens should never be used for euthanasia

 

8.7.9.4

Advantage: Fixes chemical activity of brain tissue

 

8.7.10

Rapid freezing by immersion in liquid nitrogen

 

8.7.10.1

To be used only for animals weighing 40 gms or less because larger animals are not rendered unconscious rapidly

 

8.7.10.2

Requires well-trained personnel and appropriate equipment

 

8.7.10.3

Advantage: Instantaneously inactivates and fixes enxymes in brain tissue

8.7.11

Air embolism: Not recommended for routine use

 

8.7.11.1

Intravenous injection of 5 to 50 ml/kg of air induces rapid death in rabbits

 

8.7.11.2

Acceptable method only when animals are anesthetized

8.7.12

Physical methods not recommended for use

 

8.7.12.1

Decompression (hypoxia): Induces unconsciousness and death due to cerebral edema

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

8.7.12.2

Electrocution

 

 

• Requires special equipment that passes electrical current directly through the brain to cause immediate loss of consciousness

 

 

• Is potentially hazardous to personnel

8.8 Carcass Disposal

8.8.1

Conduct the process in a way that demonstrates respect for the animal

8.8.2

Occupational hazards

 

8.8.2.1

Evaluate possible hazards to human handlers when animals are known to be carrying a zoonotic agent or were treated with radioisotopes or toxic chemicals

 

8.8.2.2

Ensure that personnel handling such carcasses take the necessary precautions to protect themselves and others

8.8.3

Follow institutional guidelines for packaging carcasses and moving them to the incinerator to ensure proper disposal

REFERENCES

Ad Hoc Committee on Animal Research. 1988. Interdisciplinary Principles and Guidelines for the Use of Animals in Research, Testing, and Education. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

Arluke, A. B. 1988. Sacrificial symbolism in animal experimentation: Object or pet? Anthrozoös 2(2):98-117.

AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). 1986. 1986 Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 188:2522-268.


CCAC (Canadian Council on Animal Care). 1980. Euthanasia. Pp. 70–76 in Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 1. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Animal Care.

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


Everitt, J. I., and W. Griffon. 1988. Recent laboratory animal legislation and toxicology research and testing. CIIT Activities 8(11):4. Copies available from: Information Services, Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, P.O. Box 12137, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709.


PHS (Public Health Service). 1986. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 pp. Copies available from: Office for Protection from Research Risks, Building 31, Room 4B09, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

9
Husbandry, Care, and the Importance of the Environment

9.1 Legal Requirements for Husbandry and Care

9.1.1

Animals covered

 

9.1.1.1

AWRs: Any warmblooded animal used or intended for use in research, testing, or education except birds, rats of the genus Rattus and mice of the genus Mus bred for use in research, and horses and other farm animals used or intended for use in agricultural research and production (see 9 CFR 1.1)

 

9.1.1.2

PHS Policy: All live vertebrates used in PHS-conducted or supported activities

 

9.1.1.3

State and local laws, as applicable

9.1.2

Scope of Coverage

 

9.1.2.1

Facilities and operating procedures in facilities, including temperature and humidity, lighting, cage construction and maintenance, cage size, and waste disposal

 

9.1.2.2

Animal health and husbandry, including feeding, watering, sanitation, staffing, classification and separation, and veterinary care

 

9.1.2.3

Transportation, including construction, size, and ventilation of transportation cage; identification of animals; and care in transit

9.2 Importance of Proper Husbandry and a Stable Environment

9.2.1

Improves validity and reliability of experimental data

9.2.2

Conserves research resources

 

9.2.2.1

Reduces number of animals necessary

 

9.2.2.2

Reduces time required to complete experiments

 

9.2.2.3

Reduces cost

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

9.2.3

Improves staff morale and community relations

9.3 Environmental Variables that can be Controlled

9.3.1

The micro- and macroenvironments

 

9.3.1.1

Definitions

 

 

• Microenvironment: The physical environment immediately surrounding the animal, for example, temperature and humidity in the cage or primary enclosure (NRC, 1985)

 

 

• Macroenvironment: The physical conditions in the room or secondary enclosure (NRC, 1985)

 

9.3.1.2

Importance of the microenvironment

 

 

• Profoundly affects metabolism, behavior, and susceptibility to diseases

 

 

• May vary greatly from macroenvironment, depending on cage design (e.g., ammonia levels will be higher in an enclosed cage than in an open one)

 

 

• Can be more difficult to monitor and regulate than the macroenvironment

9.3.2

Examples of variables that can affect animal health and research outcomes

 

9.3.2.1

Temperature and humidity

 

9.3.2.2

Ventilation

 

9.3.2.3

Population density

 

9.3.2.4

Illumination

 

9.3.2.5

Noise (frequency, loudness, suddenness of onset

 

9.3.2.6

Food and water

 

9.3.2.7

Type of bedding

 

9.3.2.8

Sanitation

 

9.3.2.9

Handling (age of animal, frequency of handling)

9.4 Dealing with Emergencies (e.g., power failure, flooding, air-handlingfailure, heating or cooling failure, fire)

REFERENCE

NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

10
Species-Specific Overview

The following outline is intended as a guide for preparing a series of programs, each designed to provide information on a specific animal (e.g., dogs, nonhuman primates) or group of animals (e.g., rodents). Topics are broken down by animal type only in those instances in which the material to be covered depends on animal type. With the exception of the Specific Techniques section, which is intended to be hands-on training, the material in this section can be presented in a variety of formats, as appropriate to institutional needs and constraints.

Outline

10.1 Factors Associated with Selection of Animals

10.1.1

Rodents

 

10.1.1.1

Types of stocks

 

 

• Inbred: Each animal of the strain is virtually genetically identical to all the others of that strain

 

 

• Hybrid: The first generation offspring of two inbred strains; known genetic background, but heterozygous at most loci

 

 

• Mutant: Each animal carries an inherited trait or a combination of traits that allows the study of a specific biologic process or disease

 

 

• Outbred: Genetics unknown; very heterogeneous

 

 

• Other specialized stocks (e.g., transgenic animals)

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

10.1.1.2

Standardized nomenclature

 

 

• Importance of using standardized nomenclature

 

 

• Sources for rules of standardized nomenclature (International Committee on Laboratory Animals, 1972; Lyon and Searle, 1989; Greenhouse, in press)

 

10.1.1.3

Microbiologic status

 

 

• Effects of clinical and subclinical infections on research outcomes (NRC, in press a,b)

 

 

• Definitions of terms describing microbial status (NRC, in press a)

 

 

- Germfree: A hysterectomy-derived animal that has been reared and maintained in an isolator by germfree techniques and demonstrated free of associated forms of life, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and other saprophytic or parasitic forms

 

 

- Gnotobiote: A hysterectomy-derived animal that has been reared and maintained in an isolator by germfree techniques and that has one or more associated nonpathogenic agents, all of which are known

 

 

- Defined flora: A germfree animal that has been intentionally associated with one or more microorganisms and maintained continuously in an isolator to prevent contamination by other agents (term may be used synonymously with gnotobiote)

 

 

- Pathogen free: An animal free of all demonstrable pathogens; proper usage of the term requires that the pathogen-free status be supported by current results from a battery of tests appropriate for all pathogens of a specific species (term differs little from specific pathogen free)

 

 

- Specific pathogen free (SPF) or barrier maintained: An animal free of a specified list of pathogens; proper usage of the term requires that the absence of the specified pathogens be supported by current test results from a battery of tests appropriate for those pathogens

 

 

- Virus antibody free: An animal free of antibodies to viral pathogens; proper usage requires that the absence of viral pathogens be supported by current test results from a battery of appropriate serologic tests

 

 

- Clean conventional: An animal housed in a low-security barrier and demonstrated to be free of major pathogens

 

 

- Conventional: An animal whose microbial burden is not known and not controlled; the animal is generally housed in open rooms with unrestricted access

 

 

• Animal resource policy

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

10.1.2

Rabbits

 

10.1.2.1

Breeds

 

10.1.2.2

Microbiologic status

10.1.3

Dogs and cats

 

10.1.3.1

Breeds

 

 

• Purebred

 

 

• Mixed breed

 

10.1.3.2

Purpose bred or random source

 

 

• Availability

 

 

• Health and vaccination history

10.1.4

Nonhuman primates

 

10.1.4.1

Genus and species

 

10.1.4.2

Colony-born, wild-caught, or previously used in experimentation

 

 

• Availability

 

 

• History (e.g., date of birth)

 

 

• Health records

 

 

• Previous experimental procedures

10.1.5

Other animals (as appropriate to the audience)

10.2 Procurement of Animals

10.2.1

Information on sources of animals

 

10.2.1.1

Institutional animal resource

 

10.2.1.2

Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources

 

10.2.1.3

Primate Information Clearing House

10.2.2

Requirements for purchasing animals

 

10.2.2.1

Legal requirements

 

 

• Dogs and cats

 

 

• Threatened or endangered species

 

10.2.2.2

Institutional requirements

 

 

• Requirement for purchasing only from USDA-licensed dealers, if applicable

 

 

• Microbiologic status

 

 

• Health records

 

 

• Quarantine and stabilization

10.3 Caging

10.3.1

Types of caging regularly available in the institution

 

10.3.1.1

Advantages and disadvantages

 

 

• Species needs

 

 

• Safety (people and animals)

 

 

• Security

 

 

• Visibility

 

 

• Accessibility

 

 

• Disease control

 

 

• Sanitation

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

10.3.1.2

Maximum population density permitted

 

 

• Size of individuals

 

 

• Age of individuals

 

 

• Aggressive animals

 

 

• Physiologic and metabolic signs of overcrowding

 

 

— Increased corticosterone levels

 

 

— Loss of fertility

 

 

• Behavioral effects of overcrowding

 

 

— Aggression

 

 

— Cannibalism

 

 

— Self-mutilation

10.3.2

Special caging

 

10.3.2.1

Metabolic

 

10.3.2.2

Intensive care or therapy

 

10.3.2.3

Special construction

10.4 Environmental Enrichment

10.4.1

Legal requirements

 

10.4.1.1

Dogs

 

10.4.1.2

Nonhuman primates

10.4.2

Institutional policies

10.4.3

Group housing and socialization

10.4.4

Special equipment

10.5 Food

10.5.1

Advantages and disadvantages of food-delivery methods available

 

10.5.1.1

Appropriateness for age of animal

 

10.5.1.2

Appropriateness for health status of animal

 

10.5.1.3

Adequate availability for all individuals in a social group (subordinates are not food deprived)

10.5.2

Nutrition

 

10.5.2.1

Supplementation of standard diets available

 

10.5.2.2

Diet control

 

 

• Batch date

 

 

• Frequent content assessment

 

10.5.2.3

Special dietary needs

 

 

• Unusual amounts of food, such as for pregnant and nursing animals

 

 

• Special types of food

 

 

• Caloric restriction

 

10.5.2.4

Availability and sources of experimental diets

10.5.3

Delivery of experimental agents

10.5.4

Food deprivation carried out under approved experimental protocol

10.6 Water

10.6.1

Advantages and disadvantages of available water delivery methods

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

10.6.2

Delivery of experimental agents

10.6.3

Water deprivation carried out under approved experimental protocol

10.7 Handling and Restraint

10.7.1

Regulations and policies

10.7.2

Importance of proper handling (cite examples)

 

10.7.2.1

Avoid injury to animals

 

10.7.2.2

Avoid injury to personnel

 

10.7.2.3

Minimize stress

 

10.7.2.4

Aesthetics

10.7.3

Techniques for handling

10.7.4

Methods of restraint

 

10.7.4.1

Physical

 

10.7.4.2

Chemical

 

10.7.4.3

Mechanical

10.7.5

Prolonged restraint

 

10.7.5.1

Regulations and policies

 

10.7.5.2

Procedures to reduce stress

 

 

• Selection of the least restrictive system compatible with research objectives

 

 

• Selection of the minimal restraint time needed to accomplish the research objectives

 

 

• Conditioning of animals to restraint devices before beginning research

 

 

• Prevention or treatment of problems resulting from restraint, including contusions, decubital ulcers, dependent edema, weight loss, and traumatic injury

10.8 Identification and Records

10.8.1

Legal requirements

 

10.8.1.1

PHS policy (Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals) (NRC, 1985)

 

10.8.1.2

Animal welfare regulations (9 CRF 2.35): Dogs and cats

 

10.8.1.3

Good Laboratory Practices (21 CFR 58.90)

10.8.2

Advantages and disadvantages of identification methods: Tattoos, color or dye markings, natural markings, ear punch, toe clipping, ear tags, collars

10.8.3

Recordkeeping

 

10.8.3.1

Cage card: Species and strain of animals, sex, weights, source, identification number, responsible investigator, other pertinent data

 

10.8.3.2

Individual identification: Species and strain or breed of animal, source

10.9 Animal Health

10.9.1

Normal parameters

 

10.9.1.1

Life cycle

 

10.9.1.2

Behavior patterns, including reproduction

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

10.9.1.3

Physiologic parameters

 

10.9.1.4

Clinical chemistry

10.9.2

Health surveillance

 

10.9.2.1

Importance of the health-surveillance program

 

 

• Minimizes pain and discomfort associated with disease, injury, or distress

 

 

• Reduces number of animals required by minimizing loss

 

 

• Improves the reliability and validity of experimental data

 

 

• Enables early intervention in cases of disease and injury

 

 

• Reduces probability of spread of disease

 

10.9.2.2

Role of the research team

 

 

• Assists in detection of distress and disease through frequent observation

 

 

• Reports signs of distress and disease to veterinary staff and consults on plan of action

10.9.3

Signs of distress and disease

 

10.9.3.1

Gross signs

 

 

• Cutaneous: Alopecia, cutaneous or subcutaneous swelling, dermatitis, abnormal hair coat, necrosis, discoloration

 

 

• Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea, constipation, cramping (hunched posture), anorexia, ptyalism, rectal prolapse, pendulous abdomen

 

 

• Respiratory: Dyspnea, abnormal respiratory sounds, nasal and ocular discharges

 

 

• Urinary: Polydipsia, excessive or reduced volume, content or color abnormalities, unusual odor, straining to urinate

 

 

• Neuromuscular and skeletal: Paresis or paralysis, seizures, torticollis, incoordination, lameness

 

 

• Reproductive: Infertility, abortions, discharges, still births, litter desertion, orchitis, mastitis

 

 

• Miscellaneous: Unexpected deaths, loss of appendages, weight loss, anemia, eye lesions

 

10.9.3.2

Physiologic signs

 

 

• Blood: Anemia; cell size, count, or type

 

 

• Urinary: Abnormalities in specific gravity, color, content, chemistry, volume, odor

 

 

• Decreased or elevated body temperature, pulse or respiratory rate

 

 

• Miscellaneous: Changes in synovial or cerebrospinal fluids, nerve impulse transmission, bone density, liver and pancreatic function, endocrine function, mineral and pH balance

 

10.9.3.3

Behavioral signs

 

 

• Inappetance

 

 

• High or low levels of activity

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Withdrawal to a cage corner

 

 

• Inter- or intraspecies aggression

 

 

• Unusual or repetitive movement patterns

 

 

• Excessive self grooming

 

 

• Sexual and maternal abnormalities

 

 

• Self-mutilation

10.9.4

Common disease

 

10.9.4.1

Rodents

 

 

• Mice: Acariasis, pneumonias, abscesses, mammary neoplasia, subclinical viral infections such as MHV and Sendai

 

 

• Rats: Incisor malocclusion, chronic respiratory disease, mammary (benign) neoplasia, nephrosis, sialodacryoademitis, chromodacryorrhea, moist dermatitis

 

 

• Guinea pigs: Pneumonia, enteropathies, dermatophytosis, hypo-vitaminosis C, premolar malocclusion, mastitis, pregnancy toxemia, pediculosis, urolithiasis, limb fractures

 

 

• Hamsters: Demodecosis, renal amyloidosis, limb fractures, enteropathies, cutaneous and adrenal neoplasia

 

10.9.4.2

Rabbits: Otic acariasis, coccidiosis, enteropathies, malocclusion, lumbar fracture, moist dermatitis, pasteurellosis, ulcerative pododermatitis

 

10.9.4.3

Dogs: Bordetella infection; distemper; parvovirus infection; herpesvirus infection; heartworms; intestinal and cutaneous parasitism; hepatitis, adenovirus, and parainfluenza infections; neoplasia

 

10.9.4.4

Cats: Infectious peritonitis, panleukopenia, respiratory disorders, toxoplasmosis, parasitism, leukemia, urologic syndrome, otic acariasis

 

10.9.4.5

Nonhuman primates: Enteropathies, tuberculosis, trauma, caloric insufficiency, hypovitaminosis C or D3, herpesvirus infections

 

10.9.4.6

Other animals: Include as appropriate to audience

10.9.5

Experimentally produced disorders: Physical, electrophysiologic, microbiologic, or chemical alteration of any part so as to produce an abnormal sign; must be differentiated (based on history) from signs associated with spontaneous diseases

10.9.6

Institutional procedures for emergency or special care

10.10 Zoonoses (Describe Signs and Symptoms in Animals and Humans)

10.10.1

Types

 

10.10.1.1

Naturally occurring

 

 

• Rodents: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis, rat-bite fever, Korean hemorrhagic fever and related diseases (animals imported from Europe and Asia)

 

 

• Dogs: Rabies, brucellosis, ringworm, endoparasite-induced disease

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×

 

 

• Cats: Cat-scratch fever, toxoplasmosis, endoparasite-induced disease

 

 

• Nonhuman primates: Tuberculosis, herpesvirus B infection, Marburg disease, infectious hepatitis, monkeypox

 

 

• Ungulates: Encephalomyelitis, Q fever, leptospirosis, tetanus, contagious ecthyma, cowpox

 

 

• Birds: Psitticosis (ornithosis), salmonellosis, encephalomyelitis

 

 

• Wild rodents/racoons: Rat bite fever, tularemia, plague, rabies

 

10.10.1.2

Experimentally produced (any agent injected, fed, or introduced by biotechnology)

10.10.2

Techniques for handling animals carrying or at high risk for carrying zoonotic agents

10.11 Specific Techniques: Hands-on Training in Techniques Such as Blood Withdrawal, Injections, Specimen Collection, Measurement of Vital Signs, and Euthanasia

References

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9 (Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare), Parts 1–3. Copies available from: Animal Care Staff, Regulatory Enforcement and Animal Care, Federal Building, Room 268, Hyattsville, MD 20782.


Greenhouse, D. D., M. F. W. Festing, S. Hasan, and A. L. Cohen. In press. Inbred strains of rats. In Genetic Monitoring of Inbred Strains of Rats. A Manual on Colony Management, Basic Monitoring Techniques, and Genetic Variants of the Laboratory Rat, H. J. Hedrich, ed. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.


International Committee on Laboratory Animals (now known as the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science or ICLAS). 1972. International standardized nomenclature for outbred stocks of laboratory animals. A report of the Working Party to prepare an International Nomenclature System for Outbred Animals. ICLA Bull. 30:4–17. Copies available from: Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20418.


Lyon, M. F., and A. G. Searle, eds. 1989. Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 876 pp.


NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. NIH Pub. No. 86-23. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

NRC (National Research Council). In press a. Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. A report of the ILAR Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

NRC (National Research Council). In press b. Companion Guide to Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. A report of the ILAR Committee on Infectious Diseases of Mice and Rats. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 27
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 28
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 29
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 30
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 31
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 32
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 33
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 34
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 35
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 36
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 37
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 38
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 39
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 40
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 41
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 42
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 43
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 44
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 45
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 46
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 47
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 48
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 49
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 50
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 51
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 52
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 53
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 54
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 55
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 56
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 57
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 58
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 59
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 60
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 61
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 62
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 63
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 64
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 65
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 66
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 67
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 68
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 69
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 70
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 71
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 72
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 73
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 74
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 75
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 76
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 77
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 78
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 79
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 80
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 81
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 82
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 83
Suggested Citation:"III Content Outlines." National Research Council. 1991. Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1592.
×
Page 84
Next: IV Resources »
Education and Training in the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: A Guide for Developing Institutional Programs Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $45.00
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

Federal law now requires that institutions provide training for anyone caring for or using laboratory animals. This volume provides the guidelines and resources needed to coordinate a quality training program, as well as to meet all legal requirements.

A core module for all personnel takes no more than four hours to present. Most staff then proceed to one or more additional skills-development modules including the species-specific module that can be customized to any species in use at the institution, the pain management module, and the surgery module.

The volume provides content information for required topics—from ethics to record keeping—and lists sources of additional publications, audiovisual programs, and computerized teaching aids.

Included are:

  1. Ready-to-use teaching outlines, with detailed instructions for presenting material.
  2. Practical guidelines on logistics, covering scheduling, budgeting, and more.
  3. Guidelines on how to design training for adults and how to work with investigators who may resist taking training courses.

This practical guidebook will be necessary for research institutions, particularly for staff members responsible for training coordination.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!