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Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
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2

Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects hundreds of thousands of U.S. service members and veterans. The phase 1 report presented information on the number of service members and veterans who have received diagnoses of PTSD and on how the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) are dealing with this growing mental health problem. To put the number of service members and veterans who have PTSD in perspective, this chapter begins with a brief discussion of recent revisions of the diagnostic criteria for PTSD as given in the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA’s) (2013)Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM-5). That is followed by a description of the several avenues of diagnosis, treatment, and consequences that service members or veterans who have PTSD may experience over their lifetimes. The chapter then provides an overview of the prevalence of PTSD in the general U.S. population and in U.S. military and veteran populations.

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR PTSD

In May 2013, the American Psychiatric Association released revised PTSD criteria in DSM-5 (see Table 2-1). PTSD is now categorized under “trauma- and stressor-related disorders,” rather than as an anxiety disorder as in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) (VA, 2013a). The trigger for PTSD must be exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation, as directly experienced or experienced through repeated or extreme

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

TABLE 2-1 Comparison of DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5 Criteria for PTSD

DSM-IV-TR Criteria DSM-5 Criteria

A.   The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following were present:

1.   The person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others.

2.   The person’s response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror.

A.   The person was exposed to one or more of the following event(s): death or threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violation, in one or more of the following ways:

1.   Experiencing the event(s) him/herself.

2.   Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as they occurred to others.

3.   Learning that the event(s) occurred to a close relative or close friend; in such cases, the actual or threatened death must have been violent or accidental.

4.   Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting body parts; police officers repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse); this does not apply to exposure through electronic media, television, movies, or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.

B.   The traumatic event is persistently reexperienced in one or more of the following ways:

1.   Recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event, including images, thoughts, or perceptions.

2.   Recurrent distressing dreams of the event.

3.   Acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (flashbacks).

4.   Intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or represent an aspect of the traumatic event.

5.   Physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or represent an aspect of the traumatic event.

B.   Intrusion symptoms that are associated with the traumatic event(s) (that began after the traumatic event(s)), as evidenced by one or more of the following:

1.   Spontaneous or cued recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic event(s).

2.   Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the dream is related to the event(s).

3.   Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or acts as if the traumatic event(s) were recurring.

4.   Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).

5.   Marked physiological reactions to reminders of the traumatic event(s).

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×
DSM-IV-TR Criteria DSM-5 Criteria

C.   Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated by three or more of the following:

1.   Efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associate with the trauma.

2.   Efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the trauma.

3.   Inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma.

4.   Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities.

5.   Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others.

6.   Restricted range of affect.

7.   Sense of foreshortened future.

C.   Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s) (that began after the traumatic event(s)), as evidenced by efforts to avoid one or both of the following:

1.   Internal reminders (thoughts, feelings, or physical sensations) that arouse recollections of the traumatic event(s).

2.   External reminders (people, places, conversations, activities, objects, situations) that arouse recollections of the traumatic event(s).

D.   Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by two or more of the following:

1.   Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

2.   Irritability or outbursts of anger.

3.   Difficulty concentrating.

4.   Hypervigilance.

5.   Exaggerated startle response.

D.   Negative alterations in cognitions and mood that are associated with the traumatic event(s) (that began or worsened after the traumatic event(s)), as evidenced by three or more of the following:

1.   Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic event(s) (typically dissociative amnesia; not due to head injury, alcohol, or drugs).

2.   Persistent and exaggerated negative expectations about one’s self, others, or the world.

3.   Persistent distorted blame of self or others about the cause or consequences of the traumatic event(s).

4.   Pervasive negative emotional state (for example, fear, horror, anger, guilt, or shame).

5.   Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities.

6.   Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others.

7.   Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g., unable to have loving feelings, psychic numbing).

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×
DSM-IV-TR Criteria DSM-5 Criteria

E.   Alterations in arousal and reactivity that are associated with the traumatic event(s) (that began or worsened after the traumatic event(s)), as evidenced by three or more of the following:

1.   Irritable or aggressive behavior.

2.   Reckless or self-destructive behavior.

3.   Hypervigilance.

4.   Exaggerated startle response.

5.   Problems with concentration.

6.   Sleep disturbance (for example, difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless sleep).

SOURCE: Modified from Calhoun et al., 2012, with permission.

exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event, witnessed, or (for traumatic events occurring to close family members or friends) learned about by a person. In addition, the person must experience clinically significant distress or functional impairment. The DSM-IV-TR A2 criterion that the person’s response to a traumatic event involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror, has been removed. The 17 symptoms from DSM-IV-TR remain, and three have been added. DSM-5 requires that the symptoms continue for more than a month and no longer distinguishes between acute and chronic phases of PTSD. Two subtypes of PTSD have been added: a clinical subtype with prominent dissociative symptoms for people who, in addition to meeting the criteria for PTSD, experience depersonalization and derealization symptoms and PTSD in children 6 years old and younger (APA, 2013).

The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for PTSD may affect the incidence and prevalence of PTSD in both military and civilian populations. Part of the difficulty in assessing and treating for PTSD is the inherent heterogeneity in presentation. For example, Galatzer-Levy and Bryant (2013) found that DSM-IV-TR criteria could result in 79,794 PTSD symptom combinations and that DSM-5 criteria could result in 636,120 symptom combinations. However, as of December 2013, neither DoD or VA had accepted or implemented the revised criteria, so the impact of the diagnostic changes on military and veteran populations is yet to be determined. For the studies cited in this report, DSM-IV-TR criteria have been used to diagnose PTSD.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

COURSE OF PTSD

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of PTSD can be challenging because of the variable onset of symptoms and the inherent heterogeneity in presentation. For example, symptoms of PTSD may occur soon after exposure to a traumatic event or may be delayed, sometimes for years (Bryant et al., 2013). In the first month after exposure to a trauma, some people may experience acute stress reactions or be relatively asymptomatic. Many people will never have all the symptoms or the right combination of symptoms required for a full diagnosis of PTSD but may have subsyndromal PTSD, which may impair functioning as well (Norman et al., 2007; Pietrzak et al., 2012). In one study, of those who developed PTSD in the first year, about one-third remitted within 3 months without treatment, 39% had a chronic course, and only 3.5% developed PTSD more than 3 months after exposure (Santiago et al., 2013). In the case of delayed PTSD, initial and later traumas, and the accrued impact of multiple traumas, might contribute to the development of PTSD, including subsyndromal PTSD, and comorbidities.

Treatment

Although some data support the idea that some early interventions can decrease the development of chronic PTSD by 50% (Rothbaum et al., 2012), other studies (discussed in the phase 1 report) suggest that other interventions, such as psychological debriefing, are not effective and might even do harm (Agorastos et al., 2011). For those who seek treatment, treatment may result in recovery or conversion to subsyndromal PTSD. Numerous factors influence treatment outcomes, and no single treatment, even ones that have substantial evidence bases, has been demonstrated to be effective for everyone who has PTSD. It has been suggested that about 33% of people in the general population who have PTSD are resistant to treatment; the non-response rates for cognitive behavioral therapy may be as high as 50% and for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors about 20–40% (Green, 2013). Pérez Benítez et al. (2012) found that in patients who received PTSD treatment in primary care settings, the course of the disorder was chronic, with a 38% likelihood of recovery and a 30% likelihood of recurrence. Finally, the proportion of service members and veterans who have PTSD and recover without intervention is unknown.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

Consequences

Exposure to traumatic events is associated with an increased risk of adverse physical health, such as cardiovascular disease and stroke (Boscarino, 2008; Cohen et al., 2009, 2010; Dirkzwager et al., 2007; Dong et al., 2004; Kubzansky et al., 2007, 2009). In the National Comorbidity Study, Kessler et al. (1995) found that having PTSD significantly increased the odds of onset of comorbid conditions. A recent meta-analysis found that 52% of people with current PTSD had co-occurring major depressive disorder (Rytwinski et al., 2013). Kornfield et al. (2012) found that in a group of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), and other era veterans who had subsyndromal PTSD and presented to a VA primary care clinic, 43.9% had comorbid depression. In addition to comorbidities directly associated with PTSD, such as depression and substance use disorder, assessment of and treatment for PTSD may be compounded by chronic conditions of aging. For example, Vietnam veterans who have PTSD may also have cardiovascular, endocrine, and neurological symptoms and comorbidities (Boscarino, 2008; Owens et al., 2005).

If PTSD becomes chronic, various physical and mental comorbidities and psychosocial factors may require treatment. These include depression, suicidal behavior, high-risk behaviors (such as excessive use of alcohol and other drugs or intentional engagement in dangerous activities) (Marshall et al., 2001; Resnick and Rosenheck, 2008; Zatzick et al., 1997), metabolic syndrome (Cohen et al., 2009; Weiss et al., 2011), and increased inflammatory response (O’Toole and Catts, 2008).

Work performance and social relationships in the family, workplace, and community can also be adversely affected. For example, heightened partner conflict and PTSD-related hyperarousal may contribute to intimate partner violence and child maltreatment in the family.

Furthermore, a traumatic event in the life of a loved one can be traumatic for family members as well. Spouses and partners of service members and veterans who have PTSD may experience PTSD symptoms themselves (Eaton et al., 2008; Klarić et al., 2012; Renshaw et al., 2011), and can experience relationship distress in response to the service members’ or veterans’ PTSD symptoms (Renshaw and Caska, 2012). However, the committee’s charge did not include consideration of PTSD in family members or other members of a service member’s or veteran’s support network.

It bears noting that PTSD is not the only health problem that service members and veterans may have; many of them have no PTSD, whether they were exposed to a traumatic event or not, but they may have other mental and physical health conditions not only as a result of their military service but from aging, lifestyle, and family history. Diagnosis and treat-

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
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ment of any mental or physical health conditions that service members and veterans may have are important for their functioning and quality of life.

PREVALENCE OF PTSD

Although this report focuses on PTSD in service members and veterans, PTSD is not unique to these populations. Members of the general population also can develop PTSD in the aftermath of exposure to a range of traumatic experiences. To provide a context for the prevalence of PTSD in U.S. military and veteran populations, data on the overall prevalence of the disorder and other mental health disorders in the general U.S. population are discussed below.

Prevalence of PTSD in the U.S. General Population

Although most civilians have not experienced combat, PTSD may be present in these populations as a result of exposure to other traumas, such as childhood abuse, sexual abuse, and life-threatening experiences (Basile et al., 2004; Harrison and Kinner, 1998; Hoge et al., 2004; Lowe et al., 2014; Neria et al., 2007; Punamaki et al., 2010). Because people may have symptoms of PTSD for many years before seeking treatment, or have subsyndromal PTSD, the prevalence of PTSD may be underreported.

The National Comorbidity Survey–Replication, conducted in 2001–2002, estimated that the 12-month prevalence of PTSD in the U.S. adult population was 3.6% and that the lifetime prevalence was 6.8%. Women were more likely than men to have PTSD (9.7% vs 3.6% for lifetime), and the prevalence of PTSD increased with age from 18 to 59 years, but then decreased substantially in those over 60 years old (Harvard Medical School, 2007a,b). Another national survey, the 2004–2005 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, found a lifetime prevalence of PTSD of 7.3% (Roberts et al., 2011). For comparison, the 12-month and lifetime prevalence of major depressive disorder in the adult U.S. population was 6.8% and 16.9%, respectively. The 12-month and lifetime prevalences of any mental health disorder were estimated to be 32.4% and 57.4%, respectively (NIMH, 2013).

Prevalence and Incidence of PTSD in U.S. Military Populations

In 2012, more than 1,453,000 active-duty personnel and 354,000 reservists and National Guard were eligible for health care in the DoD

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

military health system (MHS), as were 396,000 retirees.1 Of those, 846,822 active-duty service members and 210,193 National Guard and reservists had been deployed (Kennell and Associates, 2013). The length of deployment varies in each service branch; for example, Marine Corps deployments are typically 7 months, whereas Army deployments prior to January 2012 were 12–15 months and about 9 months after that. Of all service members who have deployed, 43% have deployed more than once, averaging 1.7 deployments (range 1–47). Of those, Army and Marines Corps personnel had the greatest average cumulative deployment lengths of 21 months and 16 months, respectively (IOM, 2013) since the beginning of OEF and OIF. Members of the Navy had an average cumulative deployment length of 13 months, followed by the Air Force with 12 months (IOM, 2013). Rona et al. (2007) report that United Kingdom forces who deployed for 13 months or more in a 3-year time frame “were more likely to fulfill the criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder.” The frequency and duration of exposure to traumatic events during deployment has been associated with an increased risk for the development of PTSD (Tanielian and Jaycox, 2008; see the phase 1 report for a more detailed discussion of deployment-related risk factors for PTSD).

Data from DoD indicate that the number of service members who are eligible to receive care in the MHS and have received a diagnosis of PTSD has grown since 2004 (see Table 2-2). Monahan et al. (2013) reported that the incidence of PTSD in recruit trainees throughout the service branches in 2000–2012 was 3.3 per 1,000 person-years or 0.1% of the total recruit trainee population, and the incidence was higher in female than in male recruit trainees (11.5 vs 1.7 per 1,000 person-years). The increase in PTSD is seen in all the service branches, particularly in the Army and Marine Corps. Men and women who have been deployed have the same prevalence (8%) of PTSD, although among all service members it is more common in women than in men (13.2% vs 8.9%) (see Table 2-3). Women comprise about 14% of active-duty service members.

Specific data on the incidence and prevalence of PTSD in eligible service members among the service branches was obtained from DoD. Table 2-2 shows that from 2004 to 2012 the fraction of all eligible service members who had a PTSD diagnosis increased from 0.4% (7,826 people) to 5.2% (123,337 people); and for service members previously deployed from 2004

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1 The number of service members who were eligible for health care in the MHS was restricted to those service members who were on active duty (including National Guard and reservists) at any point from 2004-2012. There were many more retirees eligible for care in the MHS, but they were not on active duty during 2004–2012 and so are not included in this number. If they were on active duty from 2001–2003, but not 2004–2012, they also were not counted in the 2012 cohort; it is expected, however, that the former group would be relatively small compared with the group that is included in the 2012 number of eligibles.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
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TABLE 2-2 Number of Eligible Service Members Who Have a Primary or Secondary Diagnosis of PTSDa

Year Service Membersb Prevalence of Service Members with PTSD (%) Previously Deployed Service Members Previously Deployed Service Members with PTSD (%) Service Members with Incident PTSD
2004 2,058,773 7,826 (0.4) 558,772 3,984 (0.7) 7,803
2005 2,093,371 17,121 (0.8) 695,625 11,306 (1.6) 11,309
2006 2,088,339 25,219 (1.2) 804,928 18,084 (2.2) 12,317
2007 2,094,995 36,034 (1.7) 889,343 27,191 (3.1) 15,960
2008 2,157,012 52,343 (2.4) 997,203 41,577 (4.2) 21,589
2009 2,262,098 68,533 (3.0) 1,100,583 55,575 (5.0) 21,938
2010 2,342,910 86,575 (3.7) 1,204,886 71,388 (5.9) 23,883
2011 2,366,153 104,334 (4.4) 1,258,623 86,955 (6.9) 25,550
2012 2,370,033 123,337 (5.2) 1,307,727 104,026 (8.0) 27,952

aA diagnosis of PTSD was considered confirmed if the service member had one inpatient stay with the diagnosis or two outpatient visits at least 1day apart with the diagnosis. The diagnosis may be the primary or any secondary diagnosis. An eligible service member is defined as anyone who is eligible to receive care in the MHS and was ever on active duty. Some service members may leave active duty but remain eligible for care in the MHS as retirees or as dependents. For example, if a male soldier is in the Army National Guard but his wife is on active duty, he is included both while he is activated as a National Guard member and after he is deactivated. Many previously deployed service members who have PTSD may have left the MHS in a year (for example, they may be receiving care in VA), and they are not counted in this table (Kennell and Associates, 2013).

bThe number of eligible service members in a given year is an average count across that year for service members who were on active duty at some point during 2004–2012. Therefore in 2012, there was an average of 2,370,033 eligibles. At any given point during that year, the number fluctuates, but it serves as a measure of the overall cohort. If a service member ever had a diagnosis of PTSD, he or she will be counted as a “Service Member with PTSD.” That is, of the 123,337 service members who have a diagnosis of PTSD in 2012, many will have received their diagnosis before 2012, although that number represents the eligibility in 2012. In the column “Service Members with Incident PTSD,” the 27,952 service members are both eligible in 2012 and received their diagnosis of PTSD in that year. SOURCE: Kennell and Associates, 2013.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

TABLE 2-3 Number of Service Members Who Have a Primary or Secondary Diagnosis of PTSD, by Branch, Component, Sex, Race, and Rank

  Year Previously Deployed Eligible Service Members Eligible Service Members with PTSD (%) Previously Deployed Service Members with PTSD (%)
Service Branch
Army 2004 238,060 4,746 (2.0) 2,921 (1.2)
  2012 636,731 85,656 (13.5) 76,274 (12.0)
Navy 2004 128,879 1,207 (0.9) 353 (0.3)
  2012 249,093 11,189 (4.5) 7,713 (3.1)
Marines 2004 60,790 748 (1.2) 450 (0.74)
  2012 125,013 12,493 (10.0) 10,597 (8.5)
Air Force 2004 129,809 1,006 (0.8) 257 (0.2)
  2012 291,178 12,811 (4.4) 9,252 (3.2)
Component
Active Duty 2004 455,256 5,496 (1.2) 2,847 (0.6)
  2012 846,822 59,266 (7.0) 53,086 (6.3)
Guard/Reserves 2004 92,912 1,650 (1.8) 997 (1.1)
  2012 210,193 14,098 (6.7) 12,458 (6.0)
Retirees 2004 4,575 184 (4.0) 76 (1.7)
  2012 199,779 41,282 (20.7) 33,365 (16.7)
Sex
Male 2004 497,006 5,468 (1.1) 3,352 (0.7)
  2012 1,134,939 100,531 (8.9) 90,190 (8.0)
Female 2004 61,744 2,356 (3.8) 631 (1.0)
  2012 172,788 22,806 (13.2) 13,836 (8.0)
Race
White 2004 363,564 5,021 (1.4) 2,591 (0.7)
  2012 835,919 71,170 (8.5) 60,282 (7.2)
Nonwhite 2004 194,569 2,738 (1.4) 1,388 (0.7)
  2012 468,823 51,660 (11.0) 43,413 (9.3)
Rank
Junior Enlisted 2004 217,925 4,052 (1.9) 2,168 (1.0)
  2012 284,137 32,348 (11.4) 25,554 (9.0)
Senior Enlisted 2004 263,458 3,188 (1.2) 1,590 (0.60)
  2012 764,348 78,374 (10.3) 68,180 (8.9)
Junior Officer 2004 40,005 275 (0.7) 123 (0.3)
  2012 96,288 4,015 (4.2) 3,323 (3.5)
Senior Officer 2004 29,820 235 (0.8) 74 (0.3)
  2012 130,824 6,241 (4.8) 4,933 (3.8)
Warrant Officer 2004 7,435 65 (0.9) Not Available
  2012 31,809 2,271 (7.1) 1,988 (6.2)

NOTE: See footnote a for Table 2-2 for a description of the criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD and how eligibility was determined.
SOURCE: Kennell and Associates, 2013.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

to 2012, the prevalence of PTSD increased from 0.7% to 8%. The breakdowns by subgroups of service members are also noteworthy (see Table 2-3). From 2004 to 2012, the PTSD rate increased from 1.2% to 7.0% in active-duty service members, from 1.8% to 6.7% in reservists, and from 4.0% to 20.7% in retirees (see Table 2-3). Most of the cases of PTSD were seen in service members who had deployed. The data on ranks shows that 2012 rates were lower in officers (4–5%) and warrant officers (7%) than in junior and senior enlisted personnel (11% and 10%, respectively) (Kennell and Associates, 2013). Also of note is the relationship between the severity of an injury and PTSD symptom severity. In a study of 1,402 OEF and OIF veterans, McLay et al. (2012) found that the prevalence of combat-related PTSD and symptom severity increased with the severity of the injury. The prevalence of PTSD was 8% in those without any injuries, 13% in those with a penetrating injury, 29% with blunt trauma, and 33% with combination injuries.

Data from the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center shows that from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2012, there were 11,033 hospitalizations of active-duty service members (all service branches) for PTSD compared with 55,586 for depression and 28,645 for alcohol abuse and dependence. Individuals hospitalized for PTSD had the highest percentage of comorbid mental health diagnoses (77.3%), and this percentage increased every year from 2006 to 2012; alcohol abuse or dependence was a frequent comorbidity (27.8%) (Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, 2013).

PTSD was one of the top five reasons for referrals to the behavioral health restoration center in Afghanistan in 2009 and 2010. The Army Mental Health Advisory Team (MHAT-7) found that the fraction of referrals due to PTSD increased from 4% in 2009 to 7% in 2010, but most of the referrals were for occupational issues (37%), adjustment disorders (20%), and relationship problems (15%) (MHAT-7, 2011).

Among all service members who had a primary diagnosis for PTSD in 2012, alcohol dependence was the comorbidity with the most health care costs (number of service members was not given). Anxiety, sleep apnea, and depression were also among the ten most costly comorbidities in terms of both dollars and total health care services used; other comorbid physical conditions that had the most service use and costs included “care involving other physical therapy” and lumbago (Kennell and Associates, 2013).

Prevalence and Incidence of PTSD in U.S. Veteran Populations

As of September 2013, there were about 22 million veterans, of whom about 2.2 million were OEF and OIF veterans. The VA projects that the number of OEF and OIF veterans will increase to about 3–4 million in 2040 and that almost 18% of them will be female (VA, 2014).

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

Today, 54% of OEF and OIF veterans use VA health care services (Schiffner, 2011) compared with the overall rate of 27.9% for all veterans (VA, 2010, 2013b). A recent survey of active-duty service members found that 60% intend to use VA health care services (Westat, 2010).

Tables 2-4 and 2-5 show the overall increase in the number of veterans who are using VA health services and that have been diagnosed with PTSD. These tables highlight the markedly higher prevalence of PTSD in the growing cohort of OEF and OIF veterans. In 2012, more than 502,000 veterans made at least two visits to VA for PTSD outpatient care (VA, 2012). Those veterans make up 9.2% of all users of VA health care, up from 4.1% in 2002 (VA, 2011). The data on OEF and OIF veterans are even more dramatic; in 2011, 99,610 veterans—24.4% of all OEF and OIF veterans who used VA health care—had a diagnosis of PTSD (VA, 2012). It is likely that these numbers do not capture the full extent of PTSD among veterans. The vast majority of eligible veterans receive their health care at facilities other than VA (such as community or private providers) or receive no health care at all. VA data show that 47% of veterans who entered specialized outpatient PTSD programs in 2012 were of the OEF and OIF era, 20% were of the 1990–1991 Gulf War era, and 34% were of the Vietnam era (VA, 2012). The prevalence and incidence of PTSD in female users of VA health services are rising: In 2008, 24,157 female veterans had PTSD (7% of all veterans who had PTSD in VA), and 7,773 of the cases were new (8% of all new PTSD cases); in 2012, the corresponding figures had risen to 42,514 (8.5%), and 12,023 (10%) (NEPEC, 2013).

Like the figures for their service-member counterparts, data from VA show the frequency of comorbidities with a primary diagnosis of PTSD. In VA, the most common co-occurring mental health disorders among all veterans (male, female, OEF and OIF, and non-OEF or OIF) in 2013 were dysthymia, anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, alcohol or drug use disorders, and bipolar disorders. The prevalence of those comorbidities has not changed substantially since 2008 (NEPEC, 2013).

The Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) has data on service-connected disability that underscore the burden that PTSD is in VA. Veterans

TABLE 2-4 Number and Percent of VA Health Care Service Users with PTSD

Era 2003 2007 2011 2012
All Eras 190,265 (4.3%) 307,483 (6.4%) 476,515 (8.9%) 502,546 (9.2%)
OEF/OIF 230 (1.1%) 33,597 (17.0%) 99,610 (24.4%) 119,482 (23.6%)

SOURCES: VA, 2011, 2012.

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

TABLE 2-5 Number of VA Patients with PTSD and New PTSD Patients by Era and Sex

  Year PTSD Patients New Patients with PTSD* (%)
Era
OEF/OIF 2008 77,255 34,263 (44.4)
  2013 203,786 69,130 (33.9)
Other Conflicts or Eras 2008 270,875 62,042 (22.9)
  2013 324,474 62,536 (19.3)
Sex
Male 2008 323,973 88,532 (27.3)
  2013 479,265 117,239 (24.5)
Female 2008 24,157 7,773 (32.2)
  2013 48,995 14,427 (29.4)
Total 2008 348,130 96,305 (27.7)
  2013 528,260 131,666 (24.9)

*Defined as patients who received a diagnosis of PTSD in the year and had no record of PTSD in the previous 365 days. SOURCE: NEPEC, 2013.

may apply for service-connected status for a disorder, including PTSD, at any time. They then receive a comprehensive clinical assessment by VA to determine whether they meet the criteria for PTSD and the degree of disability associated with the diagnosis. The VBA database includes many veterans who do not seek health care at VA but have been found in a VA assessment to have PTSD. In 2003, 196,641 OEF and OIF veterans had service-connected PTSD; however, as of 2013, 653,249 veterans had service-connected PTSD, or 17.5% of all veterans who were receiving compensation for service-connected health conditions in 2013. Of those, about 451,500 were adjudicated to be at least 50% disabled and so qualified for priority group 12 for VA care, and another 165,500 were at least 30% disabled but less than 50% and so qualified for priority group 2. PTSD is the third most common major service-connected disability, after hearing loss and tinnitus (VBA, 2014).

Data from DoD and VA show marked increases in PTSD among military service and veteran populations. Although these numbers are likely to underestimate the incidence and prevalence of PTSD, they demonstrate that action is needed to respond to this growing problem.

________________

2 See the phase 1 report or http://www.va.gov/healthbenefits/resources/priority_groups.asp for more information on priority groups (accessed January 10, 2014).

Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
×

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Suggested Citation:"2 Diagnosis, Course, and Prevalence of PTSD." Institute of Medicine. 2014. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18724.
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Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the signature injuries of the U.S. conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, but it affects veterans of all eras. It is estimated that 7-20% of service members and veterans who served in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom may have the disorder. PTSD is characterized by a combination of mental health symptoms - re-experiencing of a traumatic event, avoidance of trauma-associated stimuli, adverse alterations in thoughts and mood, and hyperarousal - that last at least 1 month and impair functioning. PTSD can be lifelong and pervade all aspects of a service member's or veteran's life, including mental and physical health, family and social relationships, and employment. It is often concurrent with other health problems, such as depression, traumatic brain injury, chronic pain, substance abuse disorder, and intimate partner violence.

The Department of Defense (DoD) and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) provide a spectrum of programs and services to screen for, diagnose, treat for, and rehabilitate service members and veterans who have or are at risk for PTSD. The 2010 National Defense Authorization Act asked the Institute of Medicine to assess those PTSD programs and services in two phases. The Phase 1 study, Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Initial Assessment, focused on data gathering. Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations Final Assessment is the report of the second phase of the study. This report analyzes the data received in Phase 1 specifically to determine the rates of success for each program or method.

Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations Final Assessment considers what a successful PTSD management system is and whether and how such a system is being implemented by DoD and VA. This includes an assessment of what care is given and to whom, how effectiveness is measured, what types of mental health care providers are available, what influences whether a service member or veteran seeks care, and what are the costs associated with that care. This report focuses on the opportunities and challenges that DoD and VA face in developing, implementing, and evaluating services and programs in the context of achieving a high-performing system to care for service members and veterans who have PTSD. The report also identifies where gaps or new emphases might be addressed to improve prevention of, screening for, diagnosis of, and treatment and rehabilitation for the disorder. The findings and recommendations of Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military and Veteran Populations: Final Assessment will encourage DoD and VA to increase their efforts in moving toward a high-performing, comprehensive, integrated PTSD management strategy that addresses the needs of current and future service members, veterans, and their families.

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