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Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop (2014)

Chapter: 3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries

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Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
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Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
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Page 16
Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 17
Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 18
Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 19
Suggested Citation:"3 Conducting Research in Developing Countries." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 20

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3    Conducting Research in   Developing Countries    This session was designed to explore three specific questions:     What  issues,  cultural  and  otherwise,  arise  when  researchers  from  de‐ veloping and developed countries collaborate?   What  are  the  unique  governance  and  regulatory  challenges  that  influ‐ ence research in developing countries?   What  are  the  ethical  principles  to  consider  when  engaging  in  cross‐ cultural research collaborations?    Two speakers addressed these questions in a session moderated by Pat‐ rick  Schlesinger,  Assistant  Vice  Chancellor  at  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley.  Benjamin  Caballero,  Professor  of  International  Health  in  the  Bloomberg School of Public Health and Professor of Pediatrics in the School of  Medicine at Johns Hopkins University, discussed how to move from paternal‐ ism to partnership in research collaborations involving investigators in develop‐ ing countries. Ames Dhai, Director and Head of the Steve Biko Centre for Bio‐ ethics at the University of the Witwatersrand, spoke about the role of ethics in  making  decisions  regarding  research  collaborations  in  developing  countries  of  varying economic status.     3.1 UNIVERSITY PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH AGREEMENTS    Presenter: Benjamin Caballero, Professor of International Health in the  Bloomberg School of Public Health and Professor of Pediatrics in the   School of Medicine at Johns Hopkins University    Speaking  from  his  perspective  as  a  pediatrician  conducting  research  on  childhood  obesity  in  developing  countries,  Benjamin  Caballero  took  the  posi‐ 15 

16                   Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World  tion that “in many cases, we are in a pre‐cultural stage.” By this he meant that  in many countries, the main challenges relate to ethical and regulatory issues  regarding the use of humans as experimental subjects. “Culture and language  barriers are not a main concern if experiments are conducted without consent  or  with  fake  consent.”  In  most  developing  countries,  a  lack  of  resources  and  expertise results in weak regulatory frameworks and an increasing reliance on  private  sector  support  that  does  not  necessarily  follow  the  same  academic  framework that most researchers from the developed world are accustomed to  following.   Caballero noted that the history of research collaborations between de‐ veloped and developing countries is not an illustrious one, with very few excep‐ tions.  In  the  early  20th  century,  most  research  collaborations  with  developing  countries were designed to address a U.S. need, such as studying diseases af‐ fecting  the  productivity  of  U.S.  companies  or  performing  studies  that  were  deemed  too  risky  for  U.S.  subjects.  In  some  cases,  U.S.  investigators  took  ad‐ vantage  of  the  ethical  vulnerabilities  arising  from  a  lack  of  experienced  inde‐ pendent  review  boards  and  the  fact  that  low‐income  populations  are  more  susceptible  to  financial  incentives  to  participate  in  a  research  study.  The  as‐ sessment of risk is subjective for people living in a high‐risk environment; risks  that  would  be  unacceptable  in  American  culture  would  be  routine  for  those  living in developing countries. In addition, said Caballero, low literacy may im‐ pede truly independent informed consent procedures.   The  U.S.  Public  Health  Service  Sexually  Transmitted  Disease  Inoculation  Study, conducted in Guatemala from 1946‐1948, is one of the most egregious  examples  of  a  project  that  took  advantage  of  these  factors  (CDC,  2010).  This  study,  approved  by  the  National  Institutes  of  Health  (NIH),  the  U.S.  Surgeon  General,  the  Pan  American  Health  Organization,  and  Guatemala’s  Ministry  of  Health,  involved  inoculating  healthy  people  and  sex  workers  with  syphilis  to  study transmission of the disease. More recently, a major pharmaceutical com‐ pany was charged with falsifying parental authorizations so that infants could  participate in a vaccine trial in which fourteen babies died, while another was  accused of bribing subjects to participate in clinical trials in order to speed up  enrollment.  “This  problem  continues  in  many  countries,”  said  Caballero.  “It  is  what  I  characterized  as  a  pre‐cultural  problem—we  don’t  bridge  the  barriers,  we circumvent the barriers of culture and language.”  In his view, there are five principles of collaboration that need to be ad‐ dressed.  The  first  and  most  important  is  that  any  study  designed  to  be  con‐ ducted in a developing country has to be relevant for the local population, local  scientists, and for the national Ministry of Health. “It cannot be just for conven‐ ience, cost, or expediency,” said Caballero. Second, any collaboration needs to  share  risks,  either  by  using  a  combined  population  or  a  protocol  designed  to  minimize risk. The third principle is that there must be a regulatory framework 

Conducting Research in Developing Countries  17  that is acceptable internationally and that holds to the tenets of the many dec‐ larations, such as the Helsinki and Belmont Declarations, that state that there  are  ethical  principles  in  conducting  experiments  on  humans  that  go  beyond  culture.  The  last  two  principles  hold  that  there  should  be  strong  local  ethical  expertise and there should be unbiased funding that is driven by the size of the  study and not by the operations or convenience.   Some of these principles, said Caballero, have been implemented by NIH as  well  as  by  various  non‐governmental  organizations  and  foundations.  “There  is  general progress,” he said, “and while  we are still learning how to do it  better,  there is deliberate and strong intention to do it right.” Doing it right also means  that the majority of research funds should be controlled by local institutions and  local  principal  investigators  and  that  research  protocols  are  approved  by  local,  independent, internationally registered research ethics committees (RECs). In his  experience,  many countries lack RECs, and  so creating an  independent, reliable  REC is often the first task in establishing a collaborative research effort in a de‐ veloping nation. This is a long process that involves recruitment, training, certifi‐ cation  by  an  international  organization,  and  demonstrating  expertise  that  must  be reevaluated by NIH every two years  Research projects must also include capacity building in research bioeth‐ ics. “It’s not just waiting until the developing country somehow acquires a gen‐ eration of people who are savvy on ethical issues.” Toward that end, the NIH  Office  of  Global  Health  is  funding  eight  centers  of  excellence  in  developing  countries  and  these  centers  include  ethical  capacity  building  as  part  of  their  mission.  In  his  final  remarks,  Caballero  summarized  the  key  conditions  that  are  needed  to  establish  an  effective  research  collaboration  with  a  strong  ethical  foundation. To start, there needs to be political and social support for science  in the partner country and there should be defined strategic goals for research.  The  best  collaborations  take  place  with  strong,  reliable  counterpart  organiza‐ tions that have basic accountability principles in place. Also, there needs to be  the potential for capacity building and two‐way learning opportunities. “Even‐ tually, with time, there will be a true partnership in which we both contribute  something  original  to  improve  the  research  and  improve  the  quality  of  life  of  everyone involved,” said Caballero.    3.2 USING ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING    Presenter: Ames Dhai, Director and Head of the Steve Biko Centre   for Bioethics at the University of the Witwatersrand    In thinking about the differences between wealthy and poor developing  nations, it is important to understand the context and ask why a wealthy coun‐

18                   Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World  try  remains  less  developed,  said  Ames  Dhai.  “Is  there  a  culture  of  lack  of  re‐ sponsibility?”  asked  Dhai.  “Is  there  adequate  political  will  within  these  coun‐ tries to ensure progress and development?” The bottom line, she said, is that  there  is  no  one‐size‐fits‐all  solution,  but  that  ethics  can  support  decision‐ making  across  cultural  and  wealth/poverty  divides.  She  also  noted  that  the  huge  gaps  between  the  haves  and  the  have‐nots  cannot  be  fully  understood  through  the  over‐simplified  division  of  the  world  into  the  global  rich  and  the  global poor. “In fact, the reality is that 20 percent of the largest fortunes in the  world are in the so‐called poor countries, and even within these countries we  find  dramatic  and  drastic  health  differences  that  are  closely  linked  to  social  disadvantage, not cultural divide,” she said. “I think it is also important to re‐ member that it is the power differentials between and amongst classes in these  countries and the influence over the state that are at the root cause of poverty.  Again, it is not culture, but it is class differences and the power differentials.”  Addressing the subject of governance, Dhai said that it is often absent in  developing  countries,  and  when  it  is  present  the  standards  differ  markedly  across  countries.  In  addition,  even  when  governance  and  regulatory  frame‐ works  do  exist,  implementing  them  is  a  problem  given  the  general  lack  of  fi‐ nancial support for such initiatives. She raised the possibility of creating a glob‐ al  minimum  standard  for  regulatory  activities  that  both  parties  in  a  research  collaboration would have to meet before a project could begin and that both  parties can sustain throughout the project.   Dhai commented on Caballero’s idea of helping developing nations create  research  ethics  committees  by  noting  that  these  are  often  created  from  a  Western  philosophical  perspective.  “Very  little  consideration  is  given  to  local  philosophies and local cultures,” said Dhai, and when there are differences in  what a local ethics committee decides compared to the decisions made by its  developed country collaborators, these decisions are often looked upon nega‐ tively, a phenomenon she called ethical imperialism. When her institution finds  itself in such a situation, where its decision making is questioned, she requests  a conference call with the partner institution to see how the two partners can  develop a combined decision making process. “Some respect this request, and  others don’t want to talk to us,” she said.   Ethical  issues  do  not  end  with  a  project’s  approval,  said  Dhai;  it  is  im‐ portant  to  look  at  what  happens  after  the  project  is  reviewed  and  approved.  Her institution uses both passive and active post‐approval monitoring. Passive  monitoring  involves  reviewing  reports  from  the  sponsor’s  monitoring  agents  and data from safety monitoring boards, while active monitoring involves site  visits. There have been instances, she said, where active monitoring identified  problems that required fixing before enrollment could continue.   For Dhai, one of the dominant ethical principles that must be part of any  collaboration is justice or fairness, both in terms of how the burdens and bene‐

Conducting Research in Developing Countries  19  fits of research are distributed among the collaborators and how decision mak‐ ing  occurs.  South  Africa  uses  the  principle  of  justice  to  assist  health  research  priority  setting  activities  by  considering  the  burden  of  disease  in  the  country  and  the  cost‐effectiveness  of  the  interventions  being  planned.  An  important  part of justice, she added, is social responsibility, and the challenge for corpo‐ rate partners is to engage with stakeholders from both the developed and de‐ veloping world and to understand how corporate social responsibility is struc‐ tured  in  the  context  of  a  specific  developing  nation.  “The  priority  for  most  in  the developing world is to secure a livelihood, and therefore demands for im‐ provements  in  labor  conditions  or  for  socially  responsibility  products  of  re‐ search  are  often  of  secondary  concern,”  said  Dhai.  She  wondered  if  industry,  which is increasingly global in the way it runs human clinical trials, has different  standards for social responsibility that it holds its partners to in the developing  and developed parts of the world.  She  also  noted  the  importance  of  looking  at  trust  and  trustworthiness  when  creating  collaborations.  “Trust  is  so  essential  to  all  relationships,”  Dhai  said.  “There  is  no  single  variable  that  so  thoroughly  influences  interpersonal  and group behavior.” As a result, she believes that trust should be considered a  public  good  that  is  essential  for  maintaining  cooperation  in  society.  The  first  characteristic of trust is that it involves at least two actors, one who trusts and  one  who  is  trusted.  A  second  characteristic  is  that  the  trusting  actor  willingly  makes him or herself vulnerable to the trusted actor in circumstances in which  the  trusted actor  could  actually  benefit  from  taking  advantage  of  the trusting  actor. Finally, the trusting actor must make himself or herself vulnerable in the  belief  or  expectation  that  the  trusted  actor  will  behave  in  a  trustworthy  way  that does not exploit the trusting actor’s vulnerability.   Trustworthiness,  which  is  characterized  by  ability,  benevolence,  open‐ ness, and integrity, is also critical, and Dhai said that when trust and trustwor‐ thiness are well matched the result is an interdependence between the trusting  and trusted actors. “Most enterprises and initiatives are very successful when  there  is  a  high  level  of  interdependence,”  she  said.  But  in  most  developing  countries there is a culture of mistrust and suspicion, especially in collaborative  contexts, which she believes is not surprising given that the history of interna‐ tional research is paired with a history of exploitation of developing countries.  On the other hand, developing countries are plagued by corruption, inefficien‐ cies, and mismanagement, making it difficult for developed world sponsors to  trust that money will be put into creating capacity and actually doing research.   Dhai  ended  her  presentation  by  discussing  Lawrence  Gostin’s  recently  published  framework  for  creating  a  transformative  agenda  for  global  health  justice  (Gostin,  2013).  The  most  important  aspects  of  this  framework  for  re‐ search  are  transparency,  accountability,  and  enforcement.  “We  need  active  citizen participation to ensure transparency, collaboration, accountability, and 

20                   Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World  better resource mobilization for socially responsive research in the developing  world,”  said  Dhai.  “There  has  got  to  be  increased  stakeholder  accountability  and education  initiatives  to ensure  a  well‐informed civil  society  to  strengthen  political accountability. We cannot confuse political accountability with culture.  It is dangerous to do so.”     REFERENCES    Center for Disease Control. 2010. Findings from a CDC Report on the 1946‐1948 U.S. Public  Health  Service  Sexually  Transmitted  Disease  (STD)  Inoculation  Study.  Washington  DC:  U.S.  Department  of  Health  and  Human  Services.  Available  at  http://www.  hhs.gov/1946inoculationstudy/findings.html (accessed 7/24/2014).   Lawrence O. Gostin. 2013. Towards a Framework Convention on Global Health: A Trans‐ formative  Agenda  for  Global  Health  Justice.  Yale  Journal  of  Health  Policy,  Law,  and Ethics 13(1):Article 1. Available at http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/vi  ewcontent.cgi?article=1201&context=yjhple (accessed 3/25/2014). 

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In an increasingly interconnected world, science and technology research often transects international boundaries and involves researchers from multiple nations. This paradigm provides both new opportunities and new challenges. As science and technology capabilities grow around the world, United States-based organizations are finding that international collaborations and partnerships provide unique opportunities to enhance research and training. At the same time, enhancing international collaboration requires recognition of differences in culture, legitimate national security needs, and critical needs in education and training.

Culture Matters is the summary of a workshop convened by the Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable (GUIRR) in July 2013 to address how culture and cultural perception influence and impact the process by which research agreements are made and negotiated across international boundaries. In this workshop, "Culture Matters: An Approach to International Research Agreements", representatives from around the world and from GUIRR's three constituent sectors - government, university, and industry - gathered to provide input into four specific meeting tracks or domains. The tracks focused on research and agreements affecting or involving people/human subjects; environmental and natural resources; science, engineering, and manufacturing; and agriculture and animal issues. This report examines each of these domains and the role that culture and cultural expectations may have in the forging and implementation of international research agreements.

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