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Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
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Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
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Page 22
Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 23
Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 24
Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 25
Suggested Citation:"4 Language." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2014. Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World: Summary of a Workshop. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/18849.
×
Page 26

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4    Language    This session was designed to explore two broad questions:     How does the diversity of languages impact collaborative research?   How has the globalization of scientific research affected the language(s)  used for collaboration?    In a session moderated by Mary Jordan, Senior Technical Advisor for Pub‐ lic‐Private Partnerships in the Office of HIV/AIDS at the U.S. Agency for Interna‐ tional  Development, Derrick  Cogburn,  Associate Professor in the  School  of In‐ ternational  Service  and  Executive  Director  of  the  Center  for  Research  on  Collaboratories  and  Technology  Enhanced  Learning  Communities  (COTELCO)/  Institute  on  Disability  and  Public  Policy  (IDPP)  at  American  University,  spoke  about lessons learned  from a multi‐year, multi‐institutional collaborative  cyber‐ learning program. Scott Montgomery, Affiliate Faculty Member, Henry M. Jack‐ son  School  of  International  Studies,  University  of  Washington,  discussed  the  challenge that language differences present when communicating science.     4.1 UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL, REGIONAL, AND   NATIONAL DYNAMICS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH    Presenter: Derrick Cogburn, Associate Professor in the School of International  Service and Executive Director of COTELCO/IDPP at American University    In  2006,  the  United  Nations  General  Assembly  adopted  the  Convention  on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), an international human rights  treaty  intended  to  protect  the  rights  and  dignity  of  persons  with  disabilities.  Derrick Cogburn explained that the CRPD represented a global shift in how the  world looks at persons with disabilities from a medical model to a social justice,  rights‐based model. Much of the CRPD’s legal framework is based on the U.S.  Americans  with  Disabilities  Act,  and  it  spells  out  provisions  for  accessibility,  education, and participation in public life. Given that Southeast Asia has one of  21 

22                   Culture Matters: International Research Collaboration in a Changing World  the highest levels of disability in the world, the 10‐nation Association of South‐ east  Asian  Nations  (ASEAN)  is  taking  a  concerted  effort  to  address  the  provi‐ sions  of  the  CRPD  and  create  an  environment  where  persons  with  disabilities  can have a seat at the table when policy issues related to disability are being  discussed. As part of this effort, Cogburn and colleagues have developed a vir‐ tual institute on disability and public policy—the Institute on Disability and Pub‐ lic Policy (IDPP)—that aims to train persons with disabilities in Southeast Asia  to  be  able  to represent  themselves  in  the  policy  arena. IDPP  was  launched  in  April 2011 with four universities and two outreach partners. Today, IDPP has 14  university partners, two in the United States and 12 from ASEAN countries.   IDPP has four components: a master’s degree and continuing education  program,  an  outreach  program,  capacity  building,  and  collaborative  research.  The vehicle for each of these components is what Cogburn calls cyber‐learning,  which grew out of the National Science Foundation’s work in creating collabor‐ atories. One of the great challenges in creating this cyber‐learning environment  is accommodating the diversity of languages, including sign languages, spoken  by citizens of the ASEAN countries. Another big challenge has been dealing with  the different cultural practices of the member nations, particularly with regard  to the agreements that needed to be put in place to bring universities into the  IDPP as partners that can adhere to a basic set of principles while also operat‐ ing in their own cultural context.  With that as background, Cogburn spent the rest of his presentation dis‐ cussing some of the lessons learned from the experience of creating the IDPP.  As he had already mentioned, there were many language‐specific issues to re‐ solve, though this was made easier by the fact that ASEAN has adopted English  as its working language. So while imposing English as the working language for  IDPP might seem to be a case of cultural imperialism, Cogburn said that taking  any  other  approach  would  have  created  an  immediate  impasse.  “Luckily,  ASEAN  adopted  this  policy  of  using  English  as  its  working  language,  so  that  serves  as  a  vehicle  for  us  to  support  ASEAN  by  having  our  instruction  in  Eng‐ lish,” said Cogburn. IDPP is still trying to resolve this issue for the deaf commu‐ nity. “American Sign Language is not the lingua franca of the global deaf com‐ munity so this is a challenge for us,” he explained.  An important language‐specific issue for this project, he noted, is decid‐ ing on disability‐inclusive language that reflects the sensitivities of the disability  community with its multiple cultures. The CRPD addresses this issue by focus‐ ing  on  person‐first  or  person‐specific  language.  “Rather  than  talking  about  a  blind person, which puts the focus on their disability, you talk about a person  who  is  blind,”  Cogburn  explained.  Another  language‐specific  issue  he  and  his  colleagues  encountered  as  they  were  developing  the  IDPP  was  silence.  “How  do you interpret silence?” he asked. “If you send an email and you get no re‐

Language  23  sponse, did they not get it? Did they not like the idea? Or is it that they don’t  want to tell you ‘no’?”   More global issues that IDPP has had to deal with arise from the fact that  the ASEAN countries range from wealthy Singapore to poor Laos, and that each  country has its own national priorities and strategies and its own cultural con‐ straints.  The  resulting  issues  can  be  as  mundane  as  whether  contractors  to  IDPP  will  demand  payment  in  cash  for  services  rendered  versus  working  on  a  contract  and  coordinating  the  differing  academic  year  schedules.  He  noted  in  closing that an indirect benefit of the fact that so many academic, political and  business leaders in Southeast Asia received their academic training in the Unit‐ ed States is that many universities in the region are starting to harmonize their  academic calendars with the U.S. calendar.   In  response  to  a  question  from  a  workshop  participant,  Cogburn  noted  that the IDPP system is not the only model for multinational cyber‐education.  However, this model has allowed students from Vietnam, the Philippines, Sin‐ gapore,  and  Cambodia  to  participate  in  a  virtual  degree  program  and  learn  from faculty from throughout the region and the rest of the world.     4.2 LANGUAGE CHALLENGES IN COMMUNICATING SCIENCE    Presenter: Scott Montgomery, Affiliate Faculty Member, Henry M. Jackson  School of International Studies, University of Washington    Over the past generation, science has undergone a remarkable globaliza‐ tion,  said  Scott  Montgomery.  Between  1995  and  2009,  scientific  output  by  countries  outside  of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  as  measured  by  science,  technology, engineering, and mathematics papers, has risen dramatically (Na‐ tional Science Board, 2012). In particular, output from countries such as Turkey,  Iran, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil has increased more than 50 percent. “These  countries are helping science to finally leave a few dozen westernized wealthy  countries,”  said  Montgomery.  “It  really  is  a  new  era,  one  that  is  very  exciting  and full of challenges of various types.”  One  trend  that  has  accompanied  the  globalization  of  science  is  the  in‐ creasing adoption of English as the lingua franca of science, which Montgomery  said signals the end of an atypical era in the history of science in which there  was no lingua franca (see Figure 4‐1). From even before 1000 BCE, Aramaic and  Babylonian were the lingua francas of science. Eventually, Greek took over that  role,  followed  by  Sanskrit,  Chinese,  Arabic,  and  Latin,  and  for  many  of  these,  their role as a common language of science outlived the civilizations that gave  birth to those languages. The dominance of English as the language of science  emerged over recent decades with the physical and life sciences, and it is still  unclear  what  form  the  eventual  language  landscape  will  take.  “History  is  our 

24        Culture Matter            rs: Internationa al Research Colllaboration in aa Changing Worrld  only  piiece  of  evidence  so  far,  but  it  suggests  thhat  English  is  ju ust  beginning  its  dominaance, and it has not complete ed this at all,”  said Montgom mery.  The  T rapid  geoggraphic  expanssion  of  sciencee  and  growth  of  internation nal  collaboorations is conttributing to the adoption of  English as thee lingua franca  of  science e. It is important to keep in m mind that Engliish language skills occur over a  wide  raange  of  levelss.  Montgomeryy  noted  that  ppast  lingua  fraanca  transitions,  such ass the one occu urring now, havve taken over  a century for tthe relevant laan‐ guage  to  become  a  basic  skill  for  scholarly  com mmunities.  Am mong  the  factoors  that wiill determine th he speed with which this trannsition occurs  will be how En ng‐ lish is ttaught and how teachers are trained in vaarious countriees. Another co on‐ foundin ng factor is thaat there is no oone form of Ennglish spoken aacross the glob be.  Linguists point out th hat in addition n to North Am erican English  and British En ng‐ lish theere are South A American English, West Africcan English, Caaribbean Englissh,  East Affrican English, Hong Kong English, Indian Ennglish, Indian//Pakistani English  and Baangladeshi Engglish. There are e also develop ing forms of EEnglish, includiing  Japane ese  English  and d  Chinese  Engglish.  “So  if  yo u  bring  peoplee  together,  thhey  may alll speak English but the questtion is, which oone?” said Mon ntgomery.        FIGUREE 4‐1 Lingua franca of science tthroughout histtory.   SOURCE: Montgomeryy Slide 5.     

Language  25  The language challenges can be quite substantial, he continued, even in  such seemingly mundane areas as honorific titles and dealing with females in  male‐dominated societies. Although it is natural to presume that anyone who  can speak English can also read and write it, linguists have shown that these are  three  different  skills,  with  writing  being  the  most  challenging  of  all.  Not  only  are reading, speaking, and writing separate skills, but scientific, legal, and eco‐ nomic discourses are very different, with their own vocabularies and pronunci‐ ations.  Research  protocols  and  intellectual  property,  for  example,  may  differ  among nations in ways that are not always obvious. The result, said Montgom‐ ery,  is  that  native  English  speakers  have  a  responsibility  to  speak  and  write  clearly, or as Albert Einstein said, “as simple as possible but no simpler.”  In his final remarks, Montgomery noted that good work and ideas need  to flow from developing countries to the rest of the world but that publication  is  not  always  the  professional  incentive  that  it  is  here  in  the  United  States.  It  behooves the scientific community in the U.S. to play a mentoring role in terms  of  getting  research  results  from  their  colleagues  who  come  from  countries  where  English  is  not  the  native  language  into  the  literature.  “It  is  partly  our  duty to help them achieve a global audience at a time when science is globaliz‐ ing, to expand their opportunities as well.”     REFERENCE    National  Science  Board.  2012.  Science  and  Engineering  Indicators  2012.  Arlington  VA:  National Science Foundation (NSB 12‐01). Available at http://www.nsf.gov/statis  tics/seind12/ (accessed 3/26/2014). 

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In an increasingly interconnected world, science and technology research often transects international boundaries and involves researchers from multiple nations. This paradigm provides both new opportunities and new challenges. As science and technology capabilities grow around the world, United States-based organizations are finding that international collaborations and partnerships provide unique opportunities to enhance research and training. At the same time, enhancing international collaboration requires recognition of differences in culture, legitimate national security needs, and critical needs in education and training.

Culture Matters is the summary of a workshop convened by the Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable (GUIRR) in July 2013 to address how culture and cultural perception influence and impact the process by which research agreements are made and negotiated across international boundaries. In this workshop, "Culture Matters: An Approach to International Research Agreements", representatives from around the world and from GUIRR's three constituent sectors - government, university, and industry - gathered to provide input into four specific meeting tracks or domains. The tracks focused on research and agreements affecting or involving people/human subjects; environmental and natural resources; science, engineering, and manufacturing; and agriculture and animal issues. This report examines each of these domains and the role that culture and cultural expectations may have in the forging and implementation of international research agreements.

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