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Fire and Smoke: Understanding the Hazards (1986)

Chapter: References

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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. Fire and Smoke: Understanding the Hazards. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/1916.
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REFERENCES 1. Adams, C., T. Moisan, A. J. Chandrasekhar, and R. Warpeha. 1979. Endobronchial polyposis secondary to thermal inhalational injury. Chest 7S:643-645. 2. Alarie, Y. 1966. Irritating properties of airborne materials to the upper respiratory tract. Arch. Environ. Health 13:433-449. 4. Alarie, Y. 1973. Sensory irritation by airborne chemicals. CRC Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2:299-363. Alarie, Y. 1985. The toxicity of smoke from polymeric materials during thermal decomposition. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 25:325-347. 5. Alarie, Y., and R. C. Anderson. 1979. Toxicologic and acute lethal hazard evaluation of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 51:341-362. 6. Alarie, Y., and R. C. Anderson. 1981. Toxicologic classification of thermal decomposition products of synthetic and natural polymers. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 57:181-188. 7. Alarie, Y., and J. E. Luo. 1986. Sensory irritation by airborne chemicals: A basis to establish acceptable levels of exposure, pp. 91-100. In C. S. Barrow, Ed. Toxicology of the Nasal Passages. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. 131

132 8. Alexeeff, G. V., and S. C. Packham. 1984. Evaluation of smoke toxicity using concentration- time products. J. Fire Sci. 2 362-379e 9. Alpert, R. L. 1972 ~ Calculation of response time of ceiling-mounted fire detectors. Fire Technol. 18:181-195. 10. Ambiavagar, M., J. Chalon, and I. Zargham. 1974. Tracheobronchial cytologic changes following lower airway thermal injury. A preliminary report. J. Trauma 14:280-298. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. 1980. Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values. 4th ed. Cincinnati, Ohio: ACGIH. 12. American Society for Testing and Materials. 1983. Standard methods of fire tests of building construction and materials, pp. 337-363. In Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 04.07. ASTM E119-83. Philadelphia, Pa.: ASTM. 13. American Society for Testing and Materials. 1985. Standard terminology relating to fire standards, pp. 428-432. In Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 04.07. ASTM E176-85. Philadelphia, Pa.: ASTM. 14. American Society for Testing and Materials. 1985. Standard test method for heat and visible smoke release rates for materials and products, pp. 906-927. In Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 04.07. ASTM E906-83. Philadelphia, Pa.: ASTM. 15. Ames, B. N., J. McCann, and E. Yamasaki. 1975. Methods for detecting carcinogens and mutagens with the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome mutagenicity test e Mutat. Res. 31:347-363. 16. Anderson, E. W., R. J. Andelman, J. M. Strauch, N. J. Fortuin, and J. H. Knelson. 1973. Effect of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on onset and duration of angina pectoris: A study in ten patients with ischemic heart disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 79:46-50.

133 17. Anderson, R. A., and W. A. Harland. 1982. Fire deaths in the Glasgow area. III. The role of hydrogen cyanide. Med. Sci. Law 22:35-40. 18. Anderson, R. A., A. A. Watson, and W. A. Harland. 1981. Fire deaths in the Glasgow area. II. The role of carbon monoxide. Med. Sci. Law 21:288-294. 19. Anderson, R. C., P. A. Croce, F. G. Feeley, III, and J. D. Sakura. 1983. Study to Assess the Feasibility of Incorporating Combustion Toxicity Requirements into Building Material and Furnishing Codes of New York State. Vols. 2 and 3. Final Report to Department of State, Office of Fire Prevention and Control. Reference 88712. Cambridge, Mass.: Arthur D. Little. 260 pp. 20. Anderson, R. C., M. F. Stock, and Y. C. Alarie. 1978. Toxicologic evaluation of thermal decomposition products of synthetic cellular materials. J. Combust. Toxicol. 5:111-129. 21. Ator, N. A., W. H. Merigan, and R. W. McIntire. 1976. The effects of brief exposures to carbon monoxide on temporally differentiated responding Environ. Res. 12:81-91. 1 — 22. Axford A., C. McKerrow, A. Jones, and P. LeQuesne. 1976 Accidental exposure to isocyanate fumes a group of firemen. Br. J. Ind. Med. 33:65-71. Ayres, S. M., S. Giannelli, and H. Mueller. 1970. Myocardial and systemic responses to carboxy- hemoglobin. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 174: 268-293. 24. Babrauskas, V. 1984. Bench-scale methods for prediction for full-scale fire behavior of furnishing and wall linings. In Society of Fire Protection Engineers Technology Report. 84(10):1-25. Gaithersburg, Md.: National Bureau of Standards Center for Fire Research. Babrauskas, V. 1984. Development of the cone calorimeter. A bench-scale heat release rate apparatus, based on oxygen consumption. Fire Mater. 8:81-95.

134 26. Baker, S. P., B. O'Neill, and R. S. Karpf. 1984. The Injury Fact Book. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Co. 313 pp. 27. Balmes, J., R. M. Cullen, and R. A. Matthay. 1983. Occupational and environmental lung diseases, pp. 361-402. In R. George, R. Light, and R. Matthay, Eds. Chest Medicine. New York: Churchill Livingstone. 28. Barrow, C. S., Y. Alarie, and M. F. Stock. 1978. Sensory irritation and incapacitation evoked by thermal decomposition products of polymers and comparisons with known sensory irritants. Arch. Environ. Health 33:79-88. 29. Baum, H. R., and R. G. Rehm. 1984. Calculations of three-dimensional buoyant plumes in enclosures. Combust. Sci. Technol. 40:55-77. 30. Beal, D. D., J. T. Lambeth, and G. H. Conner. 1968. Follow-up studies on patients treated with steroids following pulmonary thermal and acrid smoke injury. Laryngoscope 78:396-403. 31. Benjamin, I., G. Heskestad, R. Bright, and T. Hayes. 1979. An Analysis of the Report on Environments of Fire Detectors. New York, N.Y.: Fire Detection Institute. 33 pp. 32. Benjamin/Clarke Associates, Inc. 1984. Fire Deaths: Causes and Strategies for Control. Lancaster, Pa.: Technomic Publishing Co. 72 pp. 33. Bevan, D. R., and J. R. Lakowitz. 1984. Mediation of toxicological properties of chemicals by particulate matter, pp. 141-180. In Hazard Assessment of Chemicals: Current Developments. New York: Academic Press. 34. Bevan, D. R., S. C. Riemer, and J. R. Lakowitz. 1981. Effects of particulate matter on rates of membrane uptake of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 8:241-250. .

135 35. Birky, M., B. M. Halpin, Y. H. Caplan, R. S. Fisher, J. M. McAllister, and A. M. Dixon. 1979. Fire fatality study. Fire Mater. 3:211-217. Birky, M., D. Malek, and M. Paabo. 1983. Study of biological samples obtained from victims of MOM Grand Hotel fire. J. Anal. Toxicol. 7:265-271. 37. Birky, M., M. Paabo, and J. Brown. 1980. Correlation of autopsy data and materials involved in the Tennessee Jail fire. Fire Saf. J. 2:17-22. 38. Birky, M., and K. J. Voorhees. (In press.) Use of soot analysis as an investigative tool in aircraft fires. 39. Boettner, E. A., G. Ball, and B. Weiss. 1969. Analysis of the volatile combustion products of vinyl plastics. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 13:377-391. 40. Boettner, E. A., and B. Weiss. 1967. An analytical system for identifying the volatile pyrolysis products of plastics. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 28:535-540. 41. Buckley, L. A., X. Z. Jiang, R. A. James, K. T. Morgan, and C. S. Barrow. 1984. Respiratory tract lesions induced by sensory irritants at the RDso concentration. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 74:417-429. Bukowski, R. (In press.) Evaluation of furniture fire hazard using a hazard assessment computer model. Fire Mater. 43. Bull, J. P., and A. J. Fisher. 1954. A study of mortality in a burn unit: A revised estimate. Ann. Surg. 139:269-274. 44. Cahalane, M., and R. H. Demling. 1984. Early respiratory abnormalities from smoke inhalation. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 251:771-773. Carroll, W. F., J. J. Beitel, A. F. Grand, C. A. Bertelo, G. F. Smith, and R. O. Gardner. 1984. Thermal Decomposition of PVC in Large Apparatus: The Generation, Transport and Decay of Hydrogen

136 Chloride, pp. 6-16. Presented to the Third U.S.-Japan-Canada Cooperative Study Group on the Toxicity of Combustion Products, October 23-25. Ottawa, Canada. 46. Charan, N. B., C. G. Myers, S. Lakshminarayan, and T. M. Spencer. 1979. Pulmonary injuries associated with acute sulfur dioxide inhalation. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 119:555-560. 47. Chu, E. H. Y., and H. V. Malling. 1968. Mammalian cell genetics. II. Chemical induction of specific locus mutations in Chinese hamster cells In vitro. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 61:1306-1312. 48. Church, D. F., and W. A. Pryor. 1985. Free radical chemistry of cigarette smoke and its toxicological implications. Environ. Health Perspec. 64:111-126. 49. Clark, C. J., D. Campbell, and W. H. Reid. 1981. Blood carboxyhaemoglobin and cyanide levels in fire survivors. Lancet 1:1332-1335. 50. Clarke, F. B., III. 1986. Fire hazard assessment, pp. 21-2--21-9. In A. E. Cote, Ed. Handbook. 16th ed. Quincy, Mass.: Protection Association. Fire Protection National Fire 51. Clarke, F. B., I. A. Benjamin, and J. W. Clayton. 1982. An Analysis of Current Knowledge in Toxicity of the Products of Combustion. Prepared for the Committee on the Toxicity of Combustion of the National Fire Protection Association Standards Council. Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association. 165 pp. 52. Clarke, F. B., III, and J. Ottoson. 1976. Fire death scenarios and firesafety planning. Fire J. 70:20-22, 117-118. 53. Colardyn, F., M. Vanderstraeten, H. Lamont, and T. van Peteghem. 1976. Acute inhalation-intoxication by combustion of polyvinylchloride. Intl. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 38:121-127. 54. Coleman, W. E., D. S. Lester, and C. H. Gorski. 1968. The particles resulting from polytetra-

137 fluoroethylene (PTFE) pyrolysis in air. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 29:54-60. 55. Cooper, L., and D. Stroup. 1982. Calculating Available Safe Egress Time (ASET)--A Computer Program and User's Guide. NBSIR 82-2578. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. 131 PPe 56. Cooper, L. Y., and D. W. Stroup. 1985. ASET-A computer program for calculating available safe egress time. Fire Saf. J. 9:29-45. 57. Coppock, R. 1984. Social Constraints on Technological Progress. Brookfield, Vt.: Gower Publishing Co. 291 pp. 58. Cornish, H. H., and E. L. Abar. 1969. Toxicity of pyrolysis products of vinyl plastics. Arch. Environ. Health 19:15-21. 59. Cox, G., S. Kumar, and N. C. Markatos. 1985. Some field model validation studies, pp. 159-172. In Fire Safety Science. Proceedings of the First International Symposium. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. 60. October 7-11. New York: Crane, C. R., D. C. Sanders, B. R. Endecott, J. K. Abbott, and P. W. Smith. 1977. Inhalation Toxicology. I. Design of a Small-Animal Test System. II. Determination of the Relative Toxi Hazards of 75 Aircraft Cabin Materials. FAA-AM-77-9. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Aviation Medicine. 49 pp. 61. Cullis, C. F., and M. M. Hirschler. 1981. The Combustion of Organic Polymers. Oxford, England Clarendon Press. 62. Curtis, M. H., J. R. Hall, and P. R. LeBlanc. 1985. Analysis of multiple-death fires in the United States during 1984. Fire J. 79:18-81. 63. Curtis, M. H., and P. R. LeBlanc. death fires in the United States. ,c 1 _ 1984. Multiple- Fire J. 78:33-54.

138 64. Demling, R. H. 1985. Medical progress: Burns. N. Engl. J. Med. 313:1389-1398. 65. Deutsche Industrie-Norm. 1981. Erzeugung Thermischer Zersetsungsproduckte van Werkstoffen unter Luftzufuhr und ihre Toxikologische Prufung. 1. Zersetsungsgerat und Bestimmung der Versuchstemperatur. 2. Verfahren zur thermischen Zersetzong. DIN 53436. Berlin: Beudh-Verlag Valrggrafen. (distributed in United States by International Publishers Services) 66. Dilley, J. V., G. T. Pryor, and S. B. Martin. 1978. Evaluation of the Potential Toxicity of Candidate Aircraft Materials: Final Report. Menlo Park: SRI International. 67. Douglas, D. B., R. B. Douglas, D. Cakes, and G. Scott. 1985. Pulmonary function of London firemen. Br. J. Ind. Med. 42:55-58. 68. Drinker, C. K. 1938. Carbon Monoxide Asphyxia New York: Oxford University Press. 276 pp. . 69. Drysdale, D. 1985. An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 424 pp. 70. Enterline, P., and M. McKiever. 1963. Differential mortality from lung cancer by occupation. J. Occup. Med. 5:283-290. 71. European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Centre. 1985. Acute toxicity tests, LD50(LC50) determinations and alternatives. D-1985-3001-30. Brussels: European Chemical Industry Ecology and Toxicology Centre. 38 pp. 72. Evans, D. D. 1985. Calculating sprinkler actuation time in compartments. Fire Saf. J. 9:147-155. 73. Fang, J., and J. N. Breese. 1980. Fire Development in Residential Basement Rooms. National Bureau of Standards NBSIR 80-2120. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. 97 pp. (available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as PB81-141509)

139 74. Farrar, D. G. 1980. The effect of the sensory irritant component of a combustion atmosphere derived from Douglas-fir on the leg-flexion avoidance-response of the rat. J. Combust. Toxicol. 7:3-22. 75. Farrar, D. G., and W. A. Galster. 1980. Biological end-points for the assessment of the toxicity of the products of combustion of materials. Fire Mater. 4:50-58. 76. Feuer, E., and K. Rosenman. 1986. Mortality in police and firefighters in New Jersey. Am. J. Ind. Med. 9:517-527. 77. Fineberg C., B. J. Miller, and F. F. Allbritten, Jr. 1954. Thermal burns of the respiratory tract. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 98:318-323. 78. Fisher, F. L., F. W. Mowrer, and R. B. Williamson. 1983. A room fire screening test procedure. Fire Technol. 19:238-250. 79. Foley, F. D., J. A. Moncrief, and A. D. Mason, Jr. 1968. Pathology of the lung in fatally burned patients. Ann. Surg. 167:251-264. 80. Forbes, W. H., D. B. Dill, H. De Silva, and F. M. Van Deventer. 1937. The influence of moderate carbon monoxide poisoning upon the ability to drive automobiles. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 19:598-603. 81. Forster, R. E. 1969. Reaction of carbon monoxide with heme proteins, pp. 10-13. In National Research Council, Committee on Effects of Atmospheric Contaminants on Human Health and Welfare. Effects of Chronic Exposure to Low Levels of Carbon Monoxide on Human Health, Behavior, and Performance. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. 82. Powell, A. J. 1985. Assessing toxic hazard as it relates to overall fire hazard. Fire Technol. 21:199-212. 83. Friedman, R. 1985. Some unresolved fire chemistry problems, pp. 349-360. In Fire Safety Science. Proceedings of the First International Symposium.

140 -October 7-11. New York, N.Y.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. 84. Friedman, R. 1981. Status of Mathematical Modeling of Fires. FMRC RC81-BT-5. Norwood, Mass.: Factory Mutual. 9 pp. 85. Gad, S. C., and A. C. Smith. 1983. Influence of heating rates on the toxicity of evolved combustion products: Results and a system for research. J. Fire Sci. 1:465-479. 86. Getzen, L. C., and E. W. Pollak. 1981. respiratory distress in burned patients. Gynecol. Obstet. 152:741-744. Fatal Surg. 87. Ginsberg, M. D. 1979. Delayed neurological deterioration following hypoxia. Adv. Neurol. 26:21-44. 88. Gordon, J. 1943. Acute tracheobronchitis complicated by bronchial stenosis following the inhalation of sulfur dioxide. N.Y. State J. Med. 43:1054-1056. 89. Gosink, B. B., P. J. Friedman, and A. A. Liebow. 1973. Bronchiolitis obliterans: Roentgenologic- pathologic correlation. Am. J. Roentgenol. Radium Ther. Nucl. Med. 117: 816-832. 90. Guyton, A. C. 1986. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. 1088 PPe 91. Hartung, R., G. L. Ball, E. A. Boettner, R. Rosenbaum, and Z. R. Hollingsworth. 1977. The performance of rats on a rotorod during exposure to combustion products of rigid polyurethane foams and wood. J. Combust. Toxicol. 4:506-522. 92. Hartzell, G. E., S. C. Packham, A. F. Grand, and W. G. Switzer. 1985. Modelling of toxicological effects of fire gases. III. Quantification of post-exposure lethality of rats from exposure to HC1 atmospheres. J. Fire Sci. 3:195-207.

141 93. Hartzell, G. E., S. C. Packham, and W. G. Switzer 1983. Toxic products from fires. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 44:248-255. - 94. Henderson, R. F., J. M. Benson, F. F. Hahn, C. H. Hobbs, R. K. Jones, J. L. Mauderly, R. O. McClellan, and J. A. Pickrell. 1985. New approaches for the evaluation of pulmonary toxicity: Bronchoalveolar ravage fluid analysis. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 5:451-458. 95. Heskestad, G. 1981. A Fire Products Collector for Calorimetry into the MW Range. Factory Mutual Research Corporation Technical Report J.I. OC2E1.RA. Norwood, Mass.: Factory Research Corporation. 100 PP ~ 96. Heskestad, G. 1973. Physical modeling of fire. J. Fire Flammability 6:253-273. 97. Higgins, E. A., V. Fiorca, A. A. Thomas, and H. V. Davis. 1972. Acute toxicity of brief exposures to HE, HC1, NO2, and HCN with and without CO. Fire Technol. 8:120-130. 98. Hilado, C. J. 1973. Flammability Test Methods Handbook. Vol. I. Westport, Conn.: Technomic. 420 pp. 99. Hilado, C. J., and C. R. Crane. 1977. Comparison of results with the USF/NASA and FAA/CAMI toxicity screening test methods. J. Combust. Toxicol. 4:56-60. 100. Hilado, C. J., H. J. Cumming, A. M. Machado, J. E. Schneider, C. R. Crane, D. C. Sanders, B. R. Endecott, and J. K. Abbott. 1977. Comparison of animal responses to the combustion products generated by the two test procedures, the USF/NASA methodology and the FAA/CAMI system. J. Combust. Toxicol. 4:325-359. 101. Hilado, C. J., and L. A. Gall. 1977. Relative toxicity of pyrolysis products of some wood samples. J. Combust. Toxicol. 4:193-199.

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