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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1980. Trace-Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Environmental Quality and Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/19799.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1980. Trace-Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Environmental Quality and Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/19799.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1980. Trace-Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Environmental Quality and Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/19799.
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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 1980. Trace-Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Environmental Quality and Health. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/19799.
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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

;-Trac~Element -~ Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Environmental Qu,ality and Healt~ . , PANEL ON THE TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF COAL RESOURCE cf ~ DEVELOPMENT RELATED TO HEAL TH I'-"' Subcommittee on the Geochemical F.nvironment in Relation to Health and Disease : ~ ,, U.S. National Committee for Geochemistry _i i.Assembly of Mathematical and Physical Sciences 0 ', ~ational ~search C_ouncil NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS Washington, D.C. 1980 ./, NAS-NAE ~; AUG o 1980 LIBRARY

):J-<J<JGG c, ,I NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governinq Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the Councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Enqineerinq, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the Committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with reqard for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a qroup other than the authors accordinq to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consistinq of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Enqineerinq, and the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sci- ences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies deter- mined by the Academy under the authority of its Congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit, self-governing member- ship corporation. The Council has become the principal operating agency of both the Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the Academy of Sciences. Library of Conqress Cataloqinq in Publication Data U.S. National Committee for Geochemistry. Panel on the Trace Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Health. Trace-element qeochemistry of coal resource development related to environmental quality and health. Biblioqraphy: p. Includes index. 1. Coal--Environmental aspects. 2. Coal--Toxicoloqy. 3. Trace elements--Environmental aspects. I. Title. 'vTD195.C58U55 1980 628.5 )10-15305 ISBN 0-309-03048-X 1•1 Available from ~'- v'National Academy Press 2101 Cbnstitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418 Printed in the United States of America

PANEL ON THE TRACE ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF COAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT RELATED TO HEALTH (PECH) I c ·~Bobby G. Wixson; Civil Enqineerinq Department, Environmental Research Center, University of Missouri, Rolla, Chairman Albert L. Paqe, Kearney Foundation of Soil Science and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, Vice Chairman Jack L. Beckner, Mininq Consultant, Environmental Proqrams, Denver, Colorado Leonard D. Hamilton, Medical Research Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York Richard C. Neavel, Synthetic Fuels, Exxon Research and Enqineerinq Co., Baytown, Texas Rodney R. Ruch, Analytical Chemistry Section, Illinois State Geoloqical Survey, Urbana Liaison Members Pope A. Lawrence, Office of Federal Activities, Environmental Protection Aqency, Washinqton, D.C. Vernon E. Swanson, Geoloqic Division, U.S. Geoloqical Survey, Denver, and Geoloqical Society of America, Boulder, Colorado Special Consultants M. E. Baser, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York A. A. Elseewi, Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside s. c. Morris, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York I. R. Strauqhan, Southern California Edison Company, Rosemead, California Staff William L. Petrie, Executive Secretary Fred Block, Staff Officer June R. Galke, Secretary iii

SUBCOMMITTEE ON THE GEOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT IN RELATION TO HEALTH AND DISEASE (GERHD) Leonard T. Kurland, Department of Medical Statistics, Epidemiology, and Genetics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, Co-Chairman Albert L. Paqe, Kearney Foundation of Soil Science and Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, Co-Chairman Harold J. Gluskoter, Department of Coal Research, Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas Rolf Hartunq, Department of Environmental and Industrial Health, University of Michiqan, Ann Arbor Donald J. Horvath, Division of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, West Virqinia University, Morqantown Everett A. Jenne, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geoloqical Survey, Menlo Park, California Walter D. Keller, Department of Geology, University of Missouri, Columbia Ruth Patrick, Department of Limnology, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Harold G. Peterinq, Ketterinq Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio Walter J. Pories, Department of Surqery, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina Ex Officio Rosemary J. Vidale, Chairman, U.S. National Committee for Geochemistry, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mex~co v

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U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR GEOCHEMISTRY Rosemary J. Vidale, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Chairman Robert A. Berner, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut John R. Castano, Shell Development Company, Houston, Texas Maria Luisa B. Crawford, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania Harold J. Gluskoter, Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas v. Rama Murthy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis James L. Papike, State University of New York, Stony Brook Arthur W. Rose, Pennsylvania State University, University Park William M. Sackett, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg E-an Zen, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia Ex Officio George w. Wetherill, President, International Association of Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry; Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. vii

PREFACE . This report assesses for decision makers and those involved in coal resource development the environmental and health impacts of trace- element effects arisinq from siqnificant increases in the use of coal, unless unusual precautions are invoked. Increasinq demands for enerqy and the pressinq need for decreased dependence of the United States on imported oil require qreater use of coal to meet the nation's enerqy needs durinq the next decade. If coal production and consumption are increased at a qreatly accelerated rate, concern arises over the release, mobilization, transportation, distribution, and assimilation of certain trace elements, with possible adverse effects on the environment and human health. Althouqh most trace elements are beneficial and many are essential, the Panel is concerned with those that may become available to the environment in toxic amounts. It is, therefore, important to understand their qeochemical pathways from coal and rocks via air, water, and soil to plants, animals, and ultimately humans, and their relation to health and disease. To address this problem, the Subcommittee on the Geochemical Environment in Relation to Health and Disease (GERHD) of the U.S. National Committee for Geochemistry, Assembly of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, National Research Council (NRC), established the Panel on Trace Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Health (PECH) with the followinq objectives: • To determine the present state of knowledqe of the composition of coal and potential health hazards of trace elements durinq development of coal resources; • To examine the environmental and man-induced factors that are related to human health throuqh the deficiencies or excesses of trace elements; • To evaluate how much of an additional burden of natural or man-made pollution would be tolerable from both detrimental and beneficial trace elements; • To disseminate information useful for the establishment of baseline studies and the development of quidelines or standards necessary for the elimination or control of toxic trace elements associat-i!d with coal development; ix

• To point out qaps in our knowledqe about health effects of trace elements released by coal development and suqqest what further studies or research miqht be needed to correct these deficiencies. The Panel was formed with knowledqeable biomedical, environmental, and earth scientists and enqineers from aqencies, industries, and universities concerned with coal, with emphasis on trace-element environmental and health aspects. Planninq and conduct of this study were coordinated with other NRC committees undertakinq related studies. The study on the Redistribution of Accessory Elements from the Increased Utilization of Coal by the NRC Committee on Accessory Elements (National Academy of Sciences, Washinqton, D.C., 1979) is in two volumes; Volume I is concerned chiefly with resources ·and economic aspects of coal and oil shale development. The Committee on Research Needs on the Health Effects of Fossil Fuel Combustion Products (HEFF) of the NRC Assembly of Life Sciences is chiefly concerned with the effects of fossil-fuel combustion products on human health. These three studies, which address somewhat different objectives, complement and supplement each other. Certain assumptions were made by the Panel to hiqhliqht the central / issues of trace elements and health and to avoid unwarranted duplication of other studies. These assumptions, which focus on specific areas of concern, were incorporated into the desiqn of the report to help the users to understand the Panel's rationale. The assumptions are as follows: • Coal production will increase in the United States at an accelerated rate, with the major portion beinq used for the qeneration of electricity. • Most of the increased coal production will be from surface-mine operations in low-sulfur western coals. • Current mininq technoloqy will qradually decrease the siqnif icance of acid mine drainaqe (AMD) from old mine operations in eastern and interior coals, so that potential problems with trace elements in these contexts should diminish rather than increase. • Solid wastes or residues qenerated by increased coal production, coal-washinq operations, and coal use will elevate the amounts of certain soluble trace elements enterinq the environment and pose a major disposal or control problem. • Beneficial, as well as detrimental, trace-element occurrences must be evaluated qeochemically, qeoqraphically, and qeoloqically at site- specific locations with respect to both environmental conditions and human health effects. • The conclusions and reconunendations of this report should be of direct value in minimizinq detrimental impacts on human health that may be expected from increases in the development of coal resources. 1 Based on the charqe to the Panel and these assumptions, this report ldescribes the amounts and distribution of trace elements related to the coal source; the various methods of coal extraction, preparation, transportation, and use; and the disposal or recyclinq of the remaininq residues or wastes. The known or projected health effects are discussed at the end of each section. x

The Panel's summary, conclusions, and recommendations are presented initially along with a ranked listing of the elements in order of estimated importance to this study. Recommendations are made concerning site-specific trace-element occurrences that need further study and concerning those trace elements that do not appear to merit additional consideration. The following chapter of this report on trace elements deals with the formation of coal, its physical and chemical composition, the resources of coal, and its utilization. A portion of this chapter also deals with chemical analytical procedures and standards, with emphasis on possible future modifications and improvements. General health considerations are also presented. The next chapter concerns coal mining, including the different surface and subsurface methods employed, subsidence and water control, soil and overburden handling and replacement, refuse and waste disposal, vegetation, and the health effects associated with the various coal- mining steps. Chapter 4 deals with the cleaning, storage, and transportation of coal and the attendant occupational and public health effects. Coal combustion products are discussed next in regard to the disposal of harmful trace elements and the health aspects concerned with their physical properties, their chemical composition, and their deposition from the atmosphere and disposal on soils or surface waters. The information on fly-ash-amended soils and plant growth emphasizes the concern for proper disposal of coal-waste residues. The last chapter of the report deals with synthetic-fuel processes, the trace elements so released and/or concentrated, and the health effects associated with coking and synfuel processes. The report concludes with references, supplemental material in appendixes, and an index. Although important concerns have been expressed about increases of C01 in the atmosphere, acid precipitation, and radioactivity associated with additional coal development, these are not the topic of this report and consequently were not evaluated in detail. xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report of the Panel on Trace Element Geochemistry of Coal Resource Development Related to Health (PECH) has been made possible by support from the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Geological Survey under Contract S0144074, the National Cancer Institute under Contract NOl-CP- 45616, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission and the Energy Research and Development Administration (now the Department of Energy) through transfer of funds under National Science Foundation Contract NSF-C310 Task Order 206 and ERDA/DOE Contract EY76C02 2708 015, and Environmental Protection Agency Contract 68 03 2554, which greatly assisted with the completion of this report, its publication, and the ongoing work of the Subcommittee on the Geochemical Environment in Relation to Health and Disease. The financial support provided by these agencies is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks is extended to the many helpful organizations and individuals that provided information for and assisted with this report. Their efforts have been truly outstanding and very much appreciated. In addition to the universities, companies, or other organizations employing the members of the Panel, notable contributions have been made by Ian Straughan of the Southern California Edison Company, A. A. Elseewi of the University of California at Riverside, and M. E. Baser and s. c. Morris of Brookhaven National Laboratory, who served as special consultants. The Subcommittee and the Panel acknowledge with special appreciation the efforts of the following prepublication reviewers:· Mary o. Amdur, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; John c. Crowell, University of California, Santa Barbara; w. Gary Ernst, University of California, Los Angeles; Harold J. Gluskoter, Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas; Paul E. Morrow, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York; Ralph M. Perhac, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California; and Harry Perry, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. The Subcommittee and Panel also thank the members and staff of the other National Research Council committees whose cooperation and coordination helped to facilitate this report. xiii

CONTENTS 1 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1 Summary and Conclusions, 1 Recommendations, 9 2 THE RESOURCE AND ITS UTILIZATION 11 Coal Formation, 11 Coal Use, 13 Chemical and Mineralogical Composition, 15 Regional Variations and Concentration Patterns, 18 Uranium in Coal, 23 Analytical Procedures and Available Standards for Coal and Coal-Residue Analysis, 24 Chemical Procedures, 24 Standards, 34 Sampling Considerations, 35 Needs for General Analyses, 36 Analysis of Related Materials for Environmental Assessment, 36 General Health Considerations, 37 3 COAL MINING 39 Surface Mining, 39 Coal Extraction, 40 Drainage Water Control, 44 Underground Mining, 45 Coal Extraction, 45 Subsidence, 45 Groundwater Control, 46 Acid Mine Drainage, 46 Reclamation, 48 overburden and Soil, 48 Postmining Spoil and overburden Drainage, 48 Refuse and Waste Disposal, 49 Final Abandonment, 50 Revegetation Processes, 50 Redistribution of Trace Elements in Mining, 51 Topsoil Handling, 52 overburden Removal and Replacement, 52 Health Effects, 53 Occupational Health, 53 Public Health, 55 xiv

4 COAL CLEANING, STORAGE, AND TRANSPORT 57 Coal Cleaninq, 57 Storaqe and Transport, 58 Health Effects, 60 Occupational Health, 60 Public Health, 61 Transport by Unit Train, Barqe, and Truck, 61 Transport by Slurry Pipelines, 61 Coal Cleaninq, 61 Iqnition of Coal-Waste Piles, 63 5 COAL COMBUSTION 64 Combustion Residues, 64 Physical Properties, 69 Chemical Composition, 71 Influence of Operatinq Conditions, 71 Solid and Slurry Residues, 77 Water Extracts from Residues, 81 Atmospheric Deposition, 82 Disposal and Recyclinq of Collected Residues on Land, 86 Chemical Properties of Fly-Ash-Amended Soils, 87 Physical Properties of Fly-Ash-Amended Soils, 90 Mineral Composition of Plants Grown on Fly-Ash- Amended Soils, 91 Plant Growth on Fly-Ash-Amended Soils, 93 Disposal in Surface Waters, 96 Neutralization of Acid Mine Drainaqe, 98 Use of Fly Ash as a Physical Conditioner of Waste Sludqes, 99 Health Effects, 99 Occupational Health, 99 Public Health, 99 6 SYNTHETIC-FUEL PROCESSES (LIQUEFACTION, GASIFICATION) AND COKE PRODUCTION FROM COAL 103 Synthetic-Fuel Processes, 103 Synthetic-Fuel Effluent Streams, 104 Health Effects, 110 Cokinq, 110 Synthetic-Fuel Plants, 116 Biblioqraphy, 117 APPENDIXES 121 A 1975 COAL FLOW MAGNITUDES 123 B ENERGY CONTENT OF COAL FLOWS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1975, BY REGION AND PROCESS 124 C TRACE METALS MOBILIZED INTO AIR 125 ABBREVIATIONS USED 127 REFERENCES 129 INDEX 143 xv

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