8
Toxicity of Certain Inorganic Elements
Current information on toxic dietary levels of inorganic elements for poultry is summarized in Table 8-1. A similar summary that describes the mineral tolerances of animals has been provided by the National Research Council (1980b). Toxicity, as defined here, is any adverse effect on performance. Reduced growth rate is the most common criterion used to indicate the specific level at which a particular mineral is toxic. Although most of the information in the table was obtained from experiments in which the mineral was added in the form of an inorganic compound, organic compounds served as the source of minerals in some reports. For instance, some of the information on the toxicity of selenium was obtained by feeding seleniferous wheat.
The toxicity of a mineral is influenced by the nature of the compound in which it is present (for example, methyl mercury is much more toxic than mercuric chloride). Toxicity may also be influenced markedly by the composition of the diet, particularly with respect to other minerals and chelating agents. Selenium included in the diet at 10 ppm reduces the growth rate, but when it is fed in combination with 1,000 ppm of silver, a level as high as 40 ppm does not reduce growth (Jensen, 1975a). Copper at a level of 800 ppm in a practical turkey diet is not toxic, but 50 ppm of copper in a purified diet reduces growth. The toxicity of copper is modified by the sulfur amino acid content of the diet. Vanadium is much more toxic in a purified diet than in a practical diet, and the toxicity is increased by adding lactose to the practical diet (Hafez and Kratzer, 1976). Conversely, vanadium toxicity is reduced by including cottonseed meal in the diet (Berg, 1965; Berg and Lawrence, 1971; Sell et al., 1986a). In many instances, a high dietary level of one mineral antagonizes another element, resulting in a physiological deficiency of minerals essential for the animal. Because many different factors affect the quantity of a mineral needed to produce toxicity, diverse observations have been reported on the toxic effects of any given mineral.
TABLE 8-1 Toxic Dietary Concentrations of Inorganic Elements and Compounds for Poultry
Element or Compound |
Species |
Age |
Chemical Form |
Toxic Concentration (ppm)a |
Toxic Effects |
References |
Aluminum |
Chicken |
Immature |
AlCl2 |
500 |
Reduced growth |
Storer and Nelson, 1968 |
Aluminum |
Chicken |
Immature |
Al2(SO4)3 |
1,000 |
Reduced growth |
Storer and Nelson, 1968 |
Aluminum |
Chicken |
Immature |
Al2(SO4)3 |
2,200 |
Rickets |
Deobold and Elvehjem, 1935 |
Aluminum |
Chicken |
Mature |
Al2(SO4)3 |
3,000 |
Reduced egg production |
Hussein et al., 1989 |
Arsenic |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
As2O5 |
100 |
Reduced body weight; reduced egg production |
Hermayer et al., 1977 |
Barium |
Chicken |
Immature |
BaCO3, BaCl2 |
200 |
Reduced growth |
Taucins et al., 1969 |
Barium |
Chicken |
Immature |
BaCl2 |
2,000 |
Death |
Taucins et al., 1969 |
Bromine |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaBr |
5,000 |
Reduced growth |
Doberenz et al., 1965 |
Cadmium |
Chicken |
Immature |
CdSO4·H2O |
25 |
Reduced growth |
Hill et al., 1963 |
Cadmium |
Chicken |
Immature |
CdSO4 |
40 |
Reduced growth |
Hill, 1974 |
Cadmium |
Turkey |
Immature |
CdCl2 |
20 |
Reduced growth |
Supplee, 1961 |
Cadmium |
Chicken |
Adult |
CdSO4 |
12 |
Decreased egg production |
Leach et al., 1979 |
Chlorine |
Chicken |
Immature |
Arginine·HCL, NaCl and KCl |
15,000 |
Reduced growth |
Nesheim et al., 1964 |
Chromium |
Chicken |
Immature |
K2CrO4 |
300 |
Reduced growth |
Kunishisa et al., 1966 |
Chromium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Cr2(SO4)3 |
300 |
Reduced growth |
Kunishisa et al., 1966 |
Chromium |
Chicken |
Adult |
CrCl3·6H2O |
10 |
Egg quality |
Jensen and Maurice, 1980 |
Cobalt |
Chicken |
Immature |
CoCl2·6H2O |
200 |
Reduced growth |
Hill, 1974 |
Cobalt |
Chicken |
Immature |
CoCl2 |
100 |
Reduced growth |
Hill, 1979 |
Copper |
Chicken |
Immature |
CuO |
806 |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Mehring et al., 1960 |
Copper |
Chicken |
Immature |
CuSO4·5H2O |
800 |
Exudative diathesis; muscular dystrophy |
Jensen, 1975b |
Copper |
Chicken |
Immature |
CuSO4·5H2O |
500 |
Reduced growth; gizzard erosion |
Poupoulis and Jensen, 1976 |
Copper |
Chicken |
Immature |
CuSO4·5H2O |
250 |
Reduced growth; gizzard erosion |
Robbins and Baker, 1980a,b |
Copper |
Turkey |
Immature |
CuSO4·5H2O |
676 (practical diet) |
Reduced growth |
Vohra and Kratzer, 1968 |
Copper |
Turkey |
Immature |
CuSO4·5H2O |
800 (purified diet) |
Reduced growth |
Supplee, 1964 |
Copper |
Turkey |
Immature |
CuCO3 |
50 (purified diet) 800 (practical diet not toxic) |
Reduced growth |
Waibel et al., 1964 |
Fluorine |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaF |
1,000 |
Reduced growth |
Doberenz et al., 1965 |
Fluorine |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaF |
500 (similar level of F as CaF not toxic) |
Reduced growth |
Gardiner et al., 1959 |
Fluorine |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaF |
500 |
Reduced growth |
Weber et al., 1969 |
Fluorine |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaF |
750 |
Reduced growth |
Berg and Martinson, 1972 |
Fluorine |
Chicken |
Adult |
NaF |
1,300 |
Reproductive characteristics |
Guenter and Hahn, 1986 |
Iodine |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
KI |
625 |
Reduced egg production, egg size, and hatchability |
Arrington et al., 1967 |
Iron |
Chicken |
Immature |
Fe2(SO4)3 |
4,500 |
Rickets |
Deobold and Elvehjem, 1935 |
Lead |
Chicken |
Immature |
Pb acetate |
1,000 |
Reduced growth |
Damron et al., 1969 |
Lead |
Chicken |
Immature |
Pb acetate |
320 |
Lethargy, 50% mortality |
Vengris and Mare, 1974 |
Lead |
Chicken |
Mature |
Pb acetate |
200 |
Reduced egg production |
Edens and Garlich, 1983 |
Lead |
Japanese quail |
Mature |
Pb acetate |
10 |
Reduced egg production |
Edens and Garlich, 1983 |
Magnesium |
Chicken |
Immature |
MgO |
5,700 |
Growth, skeletal development |
Atteh and Leeson, 1983 |
Magnesium |
Chicken |
Immature |
MgCO3 |
6,000 |
Reduced growth |
Chicco et al., 1967 |
Magnesium |
Chicken |
Immature |
MgCO3 |
6,400 |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Nugara and Edwards, 1963 |
Magnesium |
Chicken |
Adult |
MgSO4 |
19,600 |
Reduced egg production |
McWard, 1967 |
Magnesium |
Chicken |
Adult |
MgCO3 |
11,200 |
Reduced egg production |
Stillmak and Sunde, 1971 |
Manganese |
Chicken |
Immature |
MnCl2·4H2O |
4,000 |
Reduced growth |
Southern and Baker, 1983a |
Manganese |
Turkey |
Immature |
MnSO4·H2O |
4,800 |
Reduced growth |
Vohra and Kratzer, 1968 |
Mercury |
Chicken |
Immature |
HgSO4, HgCl2 |
400 |
Reduced growth |
Hill et al., 1964 |
Mercury |
Chicken |
Immature |
HgCl2 |
250b |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Parkhurst and Thaxton, 1973 |
Mercury |
Chicken |
Immature |
CH3Hg dicyanamide |
33 |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Gardiner, 1972 |
Mercury |
Chicken |
Immature |
CH3HgCl |
5 |
50% mortality |
Soares et al., 1973 |
Molybdenum |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na2MoO4 |
500 |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Davies et al., 1960 |
Molybdenum |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na2MoO4·2H2O |
350 |
Reduced growth |
Berg and Martinson, 1972 |
Molybdenum |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
Na2MoO4·2H2O |
500 |
Reduced egg production and hatchability |
Lepore and Miller, 1965 |
Molybdenum |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaMoO4 |
300 |
Reduced growth |
Kratzer, 1952 |
Nickel |
Chicken |
Immature |
NiSO4 or Ni acetate |
500 |
Reduced growth |
Weber and Reid, 1968 |
Element or Compound |
Species |
Age |
Chemical Form |
Toxic Concentration (ppm)a |
Toxic Effects |
References |
Nickel |
Chicken |
Immature |
NiCl |
400 |
Reduced growth |
Hill, 1979 |
Nitrate |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaNO3 |
900b |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Adams et al., 1967 |
Nitrate |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaNO3 |
450(N)b |
No effect on meat color |
Mugler et al., 1970 |
Nitrite |
Chicken |
Immature |
KNO2 |
658(N) |
Decreased vitamin A in liver and thyroid enlargement |
Sell and Roberts, 1963 |
Selenium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na2SeO3 + Se in wheat |
10 |
Reduced growth |
Carlson and Leitis, 1957 |
Selenium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na2SeO3 |
10 |
Reduced growth |
Jensen, 1975a |
Selenium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na2SeO3 |
20 (+1,000 Ca) |
Reduced growth |
Jensen, 1975a |
Selenium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
Se in wheat |
10 |
Reduced hatchability |
Moxon and Wilson, 1944 |
Selenium |
Chicken |
Adult |
Na2SeO3 |
5 |
Decreased hatchability |
Ort and Latshaw, 1978 |
Silver |
Chicken |
Immature |
AgSO4 |
200 |
Reduced growth |
Hill et al., 1964 |
Silver |
Chicken |
Immature |
AgNO3 |
900 |
Exudative diathesis (prevented by Se or vitamin E) |
Peterson and Jensen, 1975a |
Silver |
Chicken |
Immature |
AgNO3 |
900 |
Anemia, enlarged hearts |
Peterson and Jensen, 1975b |
Silver |
Turkey |
Immature |
Ag acetate or nitrate |
900 |
Anemia, enlarged hearts, and muscular dystrophy prevented by Cu + Se) |
Jensen et al., 1974 |
Sodium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Na glutamate |
8,900c |
Reduced growth |
Nesheim et al., 1964 |
Sodium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
Na2SO4 |
12,000b |
Reduced egg production |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Sodium chloride |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaCl |
7,000b |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Sodium chloride |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
NaCl |
10,000b |
Reduced egg production |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Sodium chloride |
Chicken |
Adult |
NaCl |
40,000–60,000 |
Reduced egg production |
Damron and Kelly, 1987 |
Sodium chloride |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaCl |
4,000b |
Reduced body weight; mortality |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Sodium chloride |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaCl |
27,000 |
Lung congestion; enlarged kidneys; mortality |
Morrison et al., 1975 |
Sodium chloride |
Duck |
Immature |
NaCl |
4,000b |
Reduced body weight |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Sodium chloride |
Turkey |
Mature |
NaCl |
60,000 |
Reduced growth |
Roberts, 1957 |
Sodium chloride |
Turkey |
Immature |
NaCl |
40,000 |
Reduced growth; pendulous crop |
Harper and Arscott, 1962 |
Strontium |
Chicken |
Immature |
SrCO3 |
6,000 |
Reduced growth |
Weber et al., 1968 |
Sulfate |
Chicken |
Immature |
K2SO4, Na2SO4, CaSO4 |
14,000 |
Reduced growth |
Leach et al., 1960 |
Sulfate |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
Na2SO4 |
8,100 |
Reduced egg production |
Krista et al., 1961 |
Tungsten |
Chicken |
Immature |
Sodium tungstate |
500 |
Reduced growth |
Teekell and Watts, 1959 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
NH4VO3 |
8 |
Reduced growth |
Berg, 1963 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Ca3(VO4)2 |
30 |
Reduced growth |
Romoser et al., 1961 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
Ca3(VO4)2 |
200 |
Mortality |
Romoser et al., 1961 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
NH4VO3 or VOSO4 |
25 |
Reduced growth; mortality |
Hathcock et al., 1964 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
NaVO3 |
5 |
Reduced growth |
Hill, 1974 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Immature |
NH4VO3 |
10 |
Reduced growth |
Summers and Moran, 1972 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
V in dicalcium phosphate |
6 |
Depressed albumin quality |
Sell et al., 1982 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
NH4VO3 |
15 |
Depressed albumin quality |
Berg et al., 1963 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
NH4VO3 |
20 |
Depressed albumin quality; reduced body weight |
Berg et al., 1963 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
NH4VO3 |
30 |
Depressed egg production |
Berg et al., 1963 |
Vanadium |
Chicken |
Laying hen |
NH4VO3 |
50 |
Depressed hatchability |
Berg et al., 1963 |
Zinc |
Chicken |
Immature |
ZnSO4, ZnCO3 |
1,500 |
Reduced growth |
Roberson and Schaible, 1960 |
Zinc |
Chicken |
Immature |
ZnO |
3,000 |
Reduced growth |
Johnson et al., 1962 |
Zinc |
Chicken |
Immature |
ZnO |
800 |
Reduced growth; bone ash (sucrose-fish meal diet) |
Berg and Martinson, 1972 |
Zinc |
Chicken |
Immature |
ZnSO4 |
2,000 |
Exudative diathesis; muscular dystrophy |
Jensen, 1975b |
Zinc |
Chicken |
Immature |
ZnSO4 |
3,000 |
Reduced growth (0.5 ppm Se in diet) |
Jensen, 1975b |
Zinc |
Turkey |
Immature |
ZnO |
4,000 |
Reduced growth |
Vohra and Kratzer, 1968 |
a Dietary concentrations of the elements unless specified otherwise. b In water. c Diet low in Cl- ion. |