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58 RACES OF MAIZE a crib in which more than 90 per cent of the ears were enclosed in red or purple husks, the result of several years of careful selection. Since glume color seems to be correlated with husk color, the high frequency of the former in Cuban corn is probably due in part to selection pressure. White husks, on the other hand, were selected by 26.9 per cent of all growers interviewed. Three farmers stated that white husks resisted insect attack more than others; six disliked husk colors because food prepared in husks (e.g., tamales) became stained; seven stated frankly that they simply disliked colored husks. Cob color of all kinds was avoided by 9 per cent of farmers interviewed. They considered foods unattractive if stained by the soluble anthocyanins. Broken ears of corn are an important constituent of "ajiaco," a popular Cuban stew. DISCUSSION The results of the interviews and the Agricultural Census of 1946 show that most Cuban farmers who produce corn are poor. Because they are unaware of the advantages of fertilizer, proper cultivation, and denser stands, their yields per unit area are about 30 per cent of what they could easily be. They are generally ignorant of sexual processes in plants and hence do not understand the biological basis for the change in their varieties, although they are well aware of the results. Most Cuban cornfields are less than eight acres in size and contain populations of roughly 35,000 plants. When more than one race is available, as in Oriente province, about one farmer in three grows at least two varieties in the same small field. Most Cuban farmers have been on the land they work less than fifteen years and have held their lines of corn less than ten. When seed is lost because of bad weather or carelessness, usually a member of the family or a neighbor will replace it, but occasionally new seed is bought in city markets. Ignorance and economic and social circum- stances thus combine to break down old indigenous races and to produce new "mongrel" types, which may, nevertheless, be superior to the old ones in certain respects. Most Cuban farmers, however, select seed ears very carefully,
CONCLUSIONS 59 and the characteristics sought are precisely those most useful in distinguishing relatively pure races of Cuban corn. Cuban farmers growing Mafz Argentino, for example, almost invariably state that they select for planting ears with the deepest orange flint grains. Those growing Mafz Canilla and Mafz Tus6n in the same field generally sell or consume intermediate forms and choose extremely thin and extremely thick ears for seed. The results of repeated hybridization and selection are two- fold. Since cob and grain types resembling the pure races are constantly selected, these forms tend to persist more or less un- changed in Cuban corn. Since no selection is made for vegeta- tive or tassel characteristics except indirectly in so far as these may be correlated with ear and grain types, repeated hybridiza- tion tends to produce plants which are intermediate between the old pure races in those respects. Thus vegetative and tassel characters of commercial races of Cuban corn tend to converge more and more toward each other. The result is that plants which are otherwise nearly indistinguishable may bear strikingly dif- ferent ears. Finally, the conservative effect of successful farmers should not be overlooked. Such men often take pride in keeping their houses clean, their fields free from weeds, and their varieties of crop plants uniform. As their reputations for successful farming grow, their less industrious neighbors may approach them for advice and for seed. These men therefore constitute, in many cases, a sort of genetic bank to which students of the races of maize of any rapidly developing country should make special efforts to address themselves. CONCLUSIONS The races of Cuban maize show clearly the results of inter- play of three dominant evolutionary forces: introduction and migration of germplasm; hybridization; and selection. Introduc- tions to Cuba have come from nearly all directions. Three abo- riginal races were probably carried to Cuba from northern South America by way of the Lesser Antilles. In recent years varieties from Argentina, the United States, and apparently Mexico have
60 RACES OF MAIZE reached Cuba. Migration and hybridization within Cuba have resulted in a new race and in the partial obliteration of differences in vegetative characters of the four most abundant types. Selec- tion, however, has preserved the essential features of the ear of the aboriginal races, so that it is still possible easily to match them with specimens collected in Venezuela, Colombia, and the other Antillean Islands. Two races of popcorn grown in Cuba probably have been in- troduced from the United States since the First World War. One of these, a white pearl type of poor popping quality, seems to be descended from a white rice popcorn marketed in Cuba by a Chicago seed house. In Cuba this variety was unintentionally crossed with the common field corn of the country, giving rise to a yellow corn with occasional white grains which is still con- sidered a distinct variety by some farmers. Probably the present race of White Popcorn arose from sowing this hybrid and select- ing the occasional segregating white grains for subsequent planting. The Cuban rice-type orange-yellow popcorn, character- ized by earliness, short stature, and heavy pubescence, appears to be a recent selection from the North American "Queen Golden" variety. A White Dent variety collected at a single farm near the eastern tip of Cuba differs greatly from other races of Cuban maize in characters of both ear and tassel. It may be a recent introduction from Mexico, for it resembles the Zapalote Chico race of Oaxaca and Chiapas in most respects. Much more important in Cuba's economy is a fourth recent introduction, Maiz Argentino. This race is almost certainly descended from a Cateto-type orange flint imported into Cuba from Argentina during and after the First World War for conver- sion to corn meal. The Argentino flint of today, however, prob- ably differs from its South American parent in important respects. In characters of the plant and tassel it is similar to other races of Cuban field corn, but its ears are very distinctive. Obviously, the processes of hybridization and continued selection for an idealized type of ear with orange, flinty grains have been opera- tive in the evolution of this race. Although a premium is paid at commercial granaries for good quality grain of this race, Maiz
CONCLUSIONS 61 Argentino seems to be losing popularity in Cuba, probably be- cause of its relatively low yields and the increasing difficulty the small farmer encounters in obtaining unmixed seed. As one of the probable ancestors of the well known commercial variety "Cuban Yellow Flint," Mafz Argentino has become indirectly a source of superior germplasm for many Central American breed- ing programs. From Columbus' Journal as interpreted by Las Casas and the admiral's son Fernando, as well as from the writings of Oviedo, it is known that maize was grown by the Indians of Cuba. It is impossible to determine which race of Cuban maize was reported by Columbus' ambassadors, for three indigenous types, Tuson, Canilla, and Maiz Criollo, exist today in the region visited by the exploring party. All three are widely distributed outside Cuba. The centers of distribution of Tuson and Canilla are apparently in the lowlands of eastern Venezuela. To the north, both occur in Trinidad and Hispaniola, as well as in eastern Cuba. From Venezuela Canilla extends westward to the Caribbean coast of Colombia and up the valley of the Magdalena, where it is known as "Puya." Tuson reaches Colombia, where it is called "Puya Grande," near the headwaters of the Orinoco River system. Archeological evidence indicates that these areas, like the Greater Antilles and part of Trinidad, were occupied by Arawak tribes before the Spanish conquest. Dent types, however, are common in both races, and since according to some students Mexico may be the center of origin of denting, it would appear logical on morphological grounds to seek their origin there. Indeed, simihr types do exist in Yucatan. The cylindrical dent race Tuson h~s an apparent counterpart in the Mexican Tuxpeiio, and the slender, flexible ears of Canilla strongly resemble those of Dzit-bacal. The Mexican races possibly may have played a part in the origin of the South American "Puya" types, but the anthropological, botanical, and geographical evidence strongly indicates that Tuson and Canilla were carried by Arawak tribes from coastal eastern Venezuela into the West Indies some time after 900 A.D. The ultimate place of origin of Mafz Criollo is more obscure. Unlike Tuson and Canilla, it is common throughout Cuba, and in coastal South America extends from Brazil to Panama. Brown
